Iranian EFL Learners’ Performance in the Reading Subsection of TOEFL: The Role of Two Strategies

مطالعات زبان و ترجمه

Article 3, Volume 51, Issue 2, July 2018, Pages 51-74   

Document Type: Research Article

DOI: 10.22067/lts.v51i2.51410

Authors

Mostafa Amiri¹; Behzad Ghonsooly^{* 2}; Zargham Ghapanchi²

¹Department of Basic Science, Gonabad University of Medical Sciences, Gonabad, Iran

²Department of English, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

Abstract

This study investigated the relationship between the Iranian EFL learners’ performance in the reading subsection of TOEFL and their awareness of metacognitive reading strategies and test-taking strategies. Sixty-two students majoring in teaching English and English literature were randomly selected from Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Hakim Sabzevari University, and Imam Reza International University. To collect data, the following instruments were employed: Nelson English proficiency test (form 300D), the reading subsection of a TOEFL form 0401, the metacognitive awareness of reading strategy inventory (MARSI), and a test-taking strategy questionnaire. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation, and independent sample t test utilizing SPSS (version 19). The results showed a negative correlation between test-taking strategies and the students’ scores in the reading subsection of TOEFL (r = -0.13), and a low correlation between MARSI and the reading subsection of TOEFL (r = 0.17). However, the correlation between Nelson proficiency test and the students’ scores in the reading subsection of TOEFL was significant (r = 0.74, p < 0.001). Moreover, the results showed that in test-taking strategies questionnaire, the students employed Reasoning subskill, Strategies for Vocabulary subskill, Guessing subskill, and Personal Knowledge and Experience subskill in order. Also, the results revealed that from the MARSI subskills, the students had used Problem-solving strategies first, and secondly, Global and Support strategies. The role of test-taking strategies is somewhat downgraded indicating that most of its subskills should not be emphasized. Conversely, awareness of metacognitive reading strategies should be considered in teaching. The suggestions and implications are discussed.

Keywords

Reading Comprehension; Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI); Test-taking Strategies; Test Performance; Proficiency; TOEFL; Nelson

References

جوادی، م.، کیوان‌آرا، م.، یعقوبی، م.، حسن‌زاده، ا.، و عبادی، ز. (2010) رابطة بین آگاهی فراشناختی از راهبردهای مطالعه و وضعیت تحصیلی دانشجویان دانشگاه علوم پزشکی اصفهان. آموزش در علوم پزشکی.10(3)، 246-254.

Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading skills and reading strategies. Reading Teacher, 61(5), 364-373.

Alderson, J. C. (1990). Testing reading comprehension skills. Part two: Getting students to talk about taking a reading test. Reading in a Foreign Language, 7, 465–503.

Almasi, J. F. (2003). Teaching strategic process in reading. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers: The report of the commission on reading. Washington, DC: National Academy of Education.

Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 463-494.

Cohen, A. (1984). On taking language tests: What the students report. Language Learning, 1(1), 70-81.

Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231-235). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911.

Ghyasi, M., Safdarian, Z., & Amini Farsani, M. (2011). Metacognitive awareness of reading strategies: A triangulated study of Iranian EFL learners. International Conference on Languages, Literature and Linguistics, IPEDR vol.26, IACSIT Press, Singapore.

Imus, H. A., Rothney, J. W., & Bear, R. M. (1938). An evaluation of visual factors in reading. Hanover, N.H.: Dartmouth College.

Israel, S. E. (2007). Using metacognitive assessments to create individualized reading instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Jacobs, J. E., & Paris, S. G. (1987). Children’s metacognition about reading: Issues in definition, measurement, and instruction. Educational Psychologist, 22(3-4), 255- 278.

Jafari, S. M., & Shokrpour, N. (2012). The reading strategies used by Iranian ESP students to comprehend authentic expository texts in English. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 1(4), 102-113.

Karbalaei, A. (2010). A comparison of the metacognitive reading strategies used by EFL and ESL readers. The Reading Matrix, 10(2), 165-180.

Khani Arani, H., Davoudi Mobarakeh, S., & Eslami Rasekh, A. (2012). Investigating associations between metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension in EAP in Iran. The Asian ESP Journal, 8(4), 63-92.

Lee, J. W., & Ku, M. (2005). Yeongeo Ilgi Siheom-Suhaeng Jeonryak Sayonge Gawnhan Sarye Yeongu [A case study on the use of English reading test-taking strategies]. Yeongeo KyoyukYeongu (English Language Teaching), 17(2), 179-201.

Mahmoudi, M. (2014). Reading strategy use among Iranian EFL Learners. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW), 6(1), 371-378.

Martinez, A. (2008). Analysis of ESP university students’ reading strategy awareness. IBÉRICA, 15, 165-176

Miholic, V. (1994). An inventory to pique students’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Reading, 38, 84–86.

Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. (2002). Metacognitive awareness of reading strategies inventory (MARSI) Version 1.0. Journal of Educational Psychology, 49(2), 249-259.

Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing students’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 249–259.

Nevo, N. (1989). Test-taking strategies on a multiple choice test of reading comprehension. Language Testing, 6(2), 199-215.

Nitko, A. J. (1983). Educational tests and measurement: An introduction. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Nor Rizan, T., Mohamad Maasum, T., & Maarof, N. (2012). Empowering ESL readers with metacognitive reading strategies. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 69, 1250-1258.

O’Malley, J. M., Russo, R. P., Chamot, A. U., & Stewner-Manzanares, G. (1998). Applications of learning strategies by students learning English as a second language. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz, & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment instruction and evaluation (pp. 215-231). San Diego: Academic Press.

Paris, S. G., & Jacobs, J. E. (1984). The benefits of informed instruction for children’s reading awareness and comprehension skills. Child Development, 55, 2083–2093.

Pereira-Laird, J. A., & Deane, F. P. (1997). Development and validation of a self-report measure of reading strategy use. Reading Psychology: An International Journal, 18, 185–235.

Phakiti, A. (2003). A closer look at the relationship of cognitive and metacognitive strategy use to EFL reading achievement test performance. Language Testing, 20(1), 26-56.

Pressley, M. (2002). Metacognition and self-regulated comprehension. In A. E. Farstrup, & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 291-309). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Purpura, J. E. (1997). An analysis of the relationships between test-takers’ cognitive and metacognitive strategy use and second language test performance. Language Learning, 47(2), 289-325.

Purpura, J. E. (1998). Investigating the effects of strategy use and second language test performance with high- and low-ability test-takers: A structural equation modelling approach. Language Testing, 15(3), 333-379.

Rokhsari, S. (2012). An investigation of reading strategies used by Iranian EFL intermediate readers. Journal of Academic and Applied Studies, 2(8) & 2(9), 1- 21.

Rubin, J. (1975). What the “good language learner” can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51.

Schmitt, M. C. (1990). A questionnaire to measure children’s awareness of strategic reading processes. The Reading Teacher, 43, 454–461.

Senay Sen, H. (2009). The relationship between the use of metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1, 2301–2305.

Shikano, M. (2014). A quantitative survey on metacognitive awareness of reading strategy use in English by Japanese university students. International Education Center Journal, 14, 11-24

Tavakolie, H. (2014). The effectiveness of metacognitive strategy awareness in reading comprehension: The case of Iranian university EFL students. The Reading Matrix, 14(2), 314-336.

Temur, T., Kargm, T., Saadet, A. B., & Bayar, V. (2010). Metacognitive awareness of grades 6, 7 and 8 students in reading process. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 4193–4199.

Upton, T. A. (1997). First and second language use in reading comprehension strategies of Japanese ESL students. Teaching English as a Second Language Electronic Journal, 3(1), 1-27.

Vasantha Dhanapala, K. (2010). Sri Lankan university students’ metacognitive awareness of L2 reading strategies. International Journal of Development and Cooperation, 16(1), 66-82.

Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (Eds.). (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. London: Prentice Hall International.

Yüksel, I., & Yüksel I. (2011). Metacognitive awareness of academic reading strategies. WCLTA, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 894-898.

Zhang, L., & Seepho, S. (2013). Metacognitive strategy use and academic reading achievement: Insights from a Chinese context. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 10(1), 54-69.