مروری بر ذخایر، زمین‌ شیمی، اکتشاف استخراج، فراوری و کاربرد لیتیوم با نگرشی بر خودروهای برقی

زمین شناسی اقتصادی

دوره 17، شماره 2 - شماره پیاپی 45، 1404، صفحه 49-90   

نوع مقاله: مقاله مروری

شناسه دیجیتال (DOI): 10.22067/econg.2025.1146

نویسندگان

محمدحسن کریم پور^{* 1}؛ بهاره بروزی نیت²

¹استاد، گروه زمین‌شناسی و گروه پژوهشی اکتشاف ذخایر معدنی شرق ایران، دانشکده علوم، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران

²دانشجوی دکتری، گروه زمین‌شناسی، دانشکده علوم، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران

چکیده

امروزه تقاضا برای فلزهای حیاتی مانند لیتیوم به طور قابل‌توجهی افزایش‌یافته و به اکتشاف، استخراج و استفاده بیشتر از این فلزها منجر‌شده است. در این بررسی جامع، انواع مختلف منابع لیتیوم، کانی ­ها، اکتشاف، استخراج، فراوری و کاربردهای آن را مورد بحث قرار می‌دهیم. پگماتیت‌ها، ذخایر رسوبی و شورابه ­ها منابع اصلی لیتیوم هستند. یکی از مهم‌ترین کاربردهای لیتیوم در صنعت باتری ­سازی به ویژه در باتری خودروهای الکتریکی است. استفاده از این باتری­ ها روز به روز افزایش یافته؛ لذا اکتشاف هرچه بیشتر ذخایر لیتیومی حائز اهمیت است. بر اساس میزان مصرف و تقاضای جهانی لیتیوم، به‌ کارگیری روش‌های گوناگون اکتشافی از جمله زمین‌شناسی، ژئوفیزیک، کانی‌شناسی، زمین‌شیمیایی و سنجش از دور و پس از آن عملیات حفاری برای یافتن ذخایر جدید لیتیوم ضروری است. پگماتیت‌ها، شورابه‌ها و پلایاهای کشور ایران پتانسیل بالایی برای ذخایر لیتیوم دارند. کشف ذخایر لیتیوم در ایران و توسعه فناوری­ های مناسب، می­ تواند کشور را به یکی از تولیدکنندگان منطقه ­ای این فلز استراتژیک تبدیل‌کند.

کلیدواژه‌ها

لیتیوم؛ ذخایر شورابه‌ای؛ وسایل نقلیه الکتریکی؛ باتری های لیتیومی

مراجع

Alcott Global, 2025. Top 20 Automotive Brands in the World by Electric Vehicle Sales. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://alcottglobal.com/infographic/top-20-automotive-brands-in-the-world-by-electric-vehicle-sales

Ames, L.L., Sand, L.B. and Goldich, S.S. 1958. A contribution on the Hector California bentonite deposit. Economic Geology, 53(1): 22–37. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.53.1.22

Balaram, V., Copia, L., Kumar, U.S., Miller, J. and Chidambaram, S., 2023. Pollution of water resources, causes, application of ICP-MS techniques in hydrological studies, monitoring, and management. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2(4): 100210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geogeo.2023.100210

Balaram, V., Santosh, M., Satyanarayanan, M., Srinivas, N. and Gupta, H., 2024. Lithium: A review of applications, occurrence, exploration, extraction, rercycling, analysis, and environmental impact. Geoscience Frontiers, 15(5): 101868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2024.101868

Balaram, V. and Sawant, S.S., 2022. Indicator minerals, pathfinder elements, and portable analytical instruments in mineral exploration studies. Minerals, 12(4): 394. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12040394

Bazamad, M., Tangestani, M.H., Asadi, S. and Staubwasser, M., 2023. Investigating the geochemical behavior and exploration potential of lithium in brines; a case study of Bam salt plug, Zagros Zone, southern Iran. Scientific Reports, 13: 21567. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-48909-5

Benson, T.R., Coble, M.A., Rytuba, J.J. and Mahood G.A., 2017. Lithium enrichment in intracontinental rhyolite magmas leads to Li deposits in caldera basins. Nature Communications, 8: 270. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-00234-y

Benson, R.T., Jowitt, S.M. and Simon Adam C.A., 2025. Special Issues on the Geology and Origin of Lithium Deposits—Introduction: Lithium Deposit Types, Sizes, and Global Distribution. Economic Geology, 120‌(3): 503–511. https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.5149

Boole, R., 2024. Variations in Atomic & Ionic Radius (Cambridge (CIE) AS Chemistry): Revision Note. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.savemyexams.com/as/chemistry/cie/25/revision-notes/1-atomic-structure/1-1-particles-in-the-atom-and-atomic-radius/variations-in-atomic-and-ionic-radius/

Bowell, R.J., Lagos, L., de los Hoyos, C.R. and Declercq, J., 2020. Classification and characteristics of natural lithium resources. Elements, 16(4): 259–264. https://doi.org/10.2138/gselements.16.4.259

Burisch, M., Leopardi, D., Guilcher, M., Šešulka, V., Dittrich, T. and Lehmann, B., 2025. Greisen-Hosted Lithium Resources of the Erzgebirge/Krušné Hory Province (Germany and Czech Republic). Economic Geology, 120‌(3): 627–647. https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.5136

Chow, A., 2023. China Commanded 63% of EV Battery Market With 6 Companies. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://growthdragons.substack.com/p/china-commanded-63-of-ev-battery   

Coffey, D.M., Munk, L.A., Ibarra, D.E., Butler, K.L., Boutt, D.F. and Jenckes, J., 2021. Lithium storage and release from lacustrine sediments: Implications for lithium enrichment and sustainability in continental brines. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 22(12): e2021GC009916. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GC009916

Daneshvar, N., Azizi, H., Asahara, Y., Tsuboi, M., Minami, M. and Mohammad, Y.O., 2021. Geochemistry and Genesis of Beryl Crystals in the LCT Pegmatite Type, Ebrahim-Attar Mountain, Western Iran. Minerals, 11(7): 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070717

Didar, P., Emami, M.H. and Emamian, F., 2015. Introduction to the geology and mineralogy of pegmatites located south of Mashhad (first report of Li-bearing pegmatites from Iran). Journal of Tethys, 3(2):123–136. (in Persian with English abstract) Retrieved May 15, 2025 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291974107_Introduction_to_the_geology_and_mineralogy_of_pegmatites_located_south_of_Mashhad_first_report_of_Li-bearing_pegmatites_from_Iran

Ding, T., Zheng, M.P., Peng, S.P., Lin, Y.H., Zhang, X.F. and Li, M.M., 2023. Lithium extraction from salt lakes with different hydrochemical types in the Tibet Plateau. Geoscience Frontiers, 14(1): 101485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2022.101485 Ebensperger, A., Maxwell, P. and Moscoso, C., 2005. The lithium industry: its recent evolution and future prospects. Resources Policy, 30(3): 218–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2005.09.001

Edmond, J.M., Measures, C., McDuff, R.E., Chan, L.H., Collier, R., Grant, B., Gordon, L.I. and Corliss, J.B., 1979. Ridge crest hydrothermal activity and the balances of the major and minor elements in the ocean: the Galapagos data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 46(1): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(79)90061-X

Evans, R.K., 2014. Lithium. In: Gunn, A.G. (Editor), Critical Metals Handbook. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, UK, pp. 230–260. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118755341.ch10

Fortune Business Insights, 2025. Lithium Market Size, Share & Industry Analysis, By Product (Carbonate, Hydroxide, Chloride, Metal, Fluoride, and Others), By Application (Batteries, Glass & Ceramics, Lubricant, Polymers, Metallurgy, Medical, Air Treatment, and Others), By End-User (Automotive, Consumer Electronics, Industrial, Energy Storage, and Others), and Regional Forecast, 2024-2032. Report ID: FBI104052. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/lithium-market-104052

Galeschuk, C. and Vanstone, P., 2007. Exploration techniques for rare-element pegmatite in the Bird-River Greenstone Belt, southeastern Manitoba. In: Milkereit, B. (Editor), Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology. Proceedings of Exploration 07: Fifth Decennial International Conference on Mineral Exploration, Canada, p. 823–839. Retrieved May 15, 2025 from https://911metallurgist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Exploration-Techniques-for-Rare-Element-Pegmatite-in-the-Bird-River-Greenstone-Belt-Southeastern-Manitoba.pdf

Gao, K. and Calabrese, J.R., 2021. The mechanisms of action of lithium in bipolar disorder. In: J. Quevedo, A.F. Carvalho and E. Vieta (Editors), Neurobiology of Bipolar Disorder. Academic Press, Cambridge, pp. 357–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819182-8.00033-8

Garate-Olave, I., Roda-Robles, E., Gil-Crespo, P.P. and Pesquera, A., 2018. Mica and feldspar as indicators of the evolution of a highly evolved granite-pegmatite system in the Tres Arroyos area (Central Iberian Zone, Spain). Journal of Iberian Geology, 44 (3): 375–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41513-018-0077-z

Goodenough, K.M., Shaw, R.A., Borst, A.M., Nex, P.A.M., Kinnaird, J.A., van Lichtervelde, M., Essaifi, A., Koopmans, L. and Deady E.A., 2025 Lithium Pegmatites in Africa: A Review. Economic Geology, 120‌(3): 513–539. https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.5133

Gourcerol, B., Gloaguen, E., Melleton, J., Tuduri, J. and Galiegue, X., 2019. Re-assessing the European lithium resource potential– A review of hard-rock resources and metallogeny. Ore Geology Reviews, 109: 494–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.04.015

Gruber, P.W., Medina, P.A., Keoleian, G.A., Kesler, S.E., Everson, M.P. and Wallington, T.J., 2011. Global Lithium Availability. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 15(5): 760–775. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00359.x

Heller, C., Kuhn, T., Versteegh, G.J.M., Wegorzewski, A.V. and Kasten, S., 2018. The geochemical behavior of metals during early diagenetic alteration of buried manganese nodules. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 142: 16–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2018.09.008

Hennessy, J. and Nikzad, S., 2018. Atomic layer deposition of lithium fluoride optical coatings for the ultraviolet. Inorganics, 6(2): 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics6020046

Horstman, E.L., 1957. The distribution of lithium, rubidium and caesium in igneous and sedimentary rocks. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 12(1–2): 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(57)90014-5

Houston, J., Butcher, A., Ehren, P., Evans, K. and Godfrey, L., 2011. The evaluation of brine prospects and the requirement for modifications to filing standards. Economic Geology, 106(7): 1125–1239. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.106.7.1225

International Lithium Association, 2023. Lithium. Retrieved January 23, 2025 from https://lithium.org/lithium/

Jaskula, B.‌W., 2024. Lithium. USGS, Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/lithium-statistics-and-information

Itani, K. and De Bernardinis, A., 2023. Review on New-Generation Batteries Technologies: Trends and Future Directions. Energies, 16(22): 7530. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16227530

Karimpour, M.H., 2024. Lithium. 16^th Iranian Society of Economic Geology, Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran.

Kesler, S.E., Gruber, P.W., Medina, R.A., Keoleian, G.A., Everson, M.P. and Wallington, T.J., 2012. Global lithium resources: Relative importance of pegmatite, brine and other deposits. Ore Geology Reviews, 48: 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.05.006

Kidder, J.A., Leybourne, M.I., Layton-Matthews, D., Bowell, R.J. and R. Rissmann, C.W.F., 2020. A review of hydrogeochemical mineral exploration in the Atacama Desert, Chile. Ore Geology Reviews, 124: 003562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103562  

Kleoff, M., Kiler, P. and Heretsch, P., 2022. Synthesis of odorants in flow and their applications in perfumery. Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry, 18: 754–768. https://doi.org/10.3762/bjoc.18.76

Lee, K.J., You, J., Gao, Y. and Terlier, T., 2024. Release, transport, and accumulation of lithium in shale brines. Fuel, 356: 129629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.129629

Li, Z., Li, C., Liu, X., Cao, L., Li, P., Wei, R., Li, X., Guo, D., Huang, K.W. and Lai, Z., 2021a. Continuous electrical pumping membrane process for seawater lithium mining. Energy and Environmental Science, 14(5): 3152–3159. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee00354b

Li, C., Li, Z., Wu, T., Luo, Y., Zhao, J., Li, X., Yang, W. and Chen, X., 2021b. Metallogenic characteristics and formation mechanism of Naomugeng clay-type lithium deposit in Central Inner Mongolia, China. Minerals, 11(3): 238. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030238

Lithium Harvest, 2025. The Lithium Mining Market. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://lithiumharvest.com/

London, D., 2018. Ore-forming processes within granitic pegmatites. Ore Geology Reviews, 101: 349–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.04.020

Mertineit, M. and Schramm, M., 2019. Lithium occurrences in brines from two German salt deposits (Upper Permian) and first results of leaching experiments. Minerals, 9(12): 766. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9120766

Motherjones, 2025. Electric vehicles. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2016/02/electric-vehicles-oil-prices/

Muller, A., Romer, R.L. and Pedersen, R-B. 2017. The Sveconorwegian Pegmatite Province – Thousands of pegmatites without parental granites. The Canadian Mineralogist, 55(2): 283–315. https://doi.org/10.3749/canmin.1600075

Munk, L.A., Boutt, D., Butler, K., Aeon Russo, A., Jenckes, J., Moran, B. and Kirshen, A., 2025. Lithium Brines: Origin, Characteristics, and Global Distribution. Economic Geology, 120‌(3): 575–597. https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.5134

Munk, L.A., Hynek, S.A., Bradley, D.C., Boutt, D., Labay, K. and Jochens, H., 2016. Lithium Brines: A Global Perspective. In: Verplanck, P.L., Hitzman, M.W. (Editors.), Rare Earth and Critical Elements in Ore Deposits. Review in Economic Geology, Society of Economic Geologists. https://doi.org/10.5382/Rev.18.14

Munk, L.A. and Jochens, H., 2011. Geochemistry of lithium-rich brines in Clayton Valley, Nevada, USA. 11th SGA Biennial Meeting Let’s Talk Ore Deposits, Antofagasta, Chile, pp. 217-219.

Nelson, S., 2022. C29 Metals about to set drills turning at Pocitos salar projects in Lithium Triangle, Argentina. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.proactiveinvestors.co.uk/companies/news/998487/c29-metals-about-to-set-drills-turning-at-pocitos-salar-projects-in-lithium-triangle-argentina-998487.html

Nol-Tec Systems, 2025. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.noltec.com/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiAiaC-BhBEEiwAjY99qIsosKQC-cnzhWv69qrdy9tPNxf0IttSP5lBv6Frq954KSs2ClDtNhoCshUQAvD_BwE

Peiro, L.T., Mendez, G.V. and Ayres, R.U., 2013. Lithium: Sources, production, uses, and recovery outlook. The Journal of The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 65: 986–996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-013-0666-4

Peng, Y., Zheng, M., Zhang, Y., Xing, E., Gui, B. and Zuo, F., 2023. Geochronology and geochemistry of lithium-rich tuffs in the Sichuan basin, western Yangtze: Implication for the magmatic origin and final closure of eastern Paleo-Tethys. Geoscience Frontiers, 14(1): 101480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2022.101480

Putzolu, F., Armstrong, R.N., Boyce, A.J., Hepburn, L.E., Bompard, N., Najorka, J. Lefebvre-Desanois, M., Milton, A.J., Salge, T., Erak, D., Abad, I. and Herrington R.J., 2025. Origin of the Jadar Volcano-Sedimentary Li-B Deposit, Serbia. Economic Geology, 120‌(3): 599–625. https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.5132

Rifai, K., Constantin, M., Yilmaz, A., Özcan, L.Ç., Doucet, F.R. and Azami, N., 2022. Quantification of lithium and mineralogical mapping in crushed ore samples using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy. Minerals, 12(2): 253. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12020253

Rudnick, R.L. and Gao, S., 2005. Composition of the continental crust. In: R.L. Rudnick, (Editor), Treatise on Geochemistry, V. 3: The Crust. Oxford, Elsevier Pergamon, pp. 1–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4

Sarkheil, H., Shahbaznejad, M., Rayegani, B., Mohtat, Y., Salahjou, T. and Sadeghy Nejad, A., 2025. Lithium Extraction Assessment from Brines in Kerman Province: Challenges and Opportunities for Clean Energy Transition and Climate Change Mitigation. International Journal of Mining and Geo-Engineering, 59(2): 401–409. (in Persian with English abstract) Retrieved May 15, 2025 from https://ijmge.ut.ac.ir/article_100680_6f3a58ab7ccb176d2d55abb1d7f83b6c.pdf

Schlesinger, W.H., Klein, E.M., Wang, Z. and Vengosh, A., 2021. Global biogeochemical cycle of lithium. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 35‌(8): e2021GB006999. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GB006999

Segovia-More, M.K., Torró, L., Benavent, C.V., Briones, J.R., Vallance, J., Monnier, L., Laurent, O. and Salvi, S., 2023. High-resolution mineralogy of Lithium-rich Tuff from the Macusani Volcanic Field, Puno, Peru. In: Proc. 17th SGA Biennial Meeting on Mineral Resources in a Changing World, SGA, Zurich, Switzerland, pp. 303-306.

Serri, G., Innocenti, F. and Manetti, P., 1993. Geochemical and petrological evidence of the subduction of delaminated Adriatic continental lithosphere in the genesis of the Neogene-Quaternary magmatism of central Italy. Tectonophysics, 223(1-2): 117–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(93)90161-C

Sharma, N., Westerhoff, P. and Zeng, C., 2022. Lithium occurrence in drinking water sources of the United States. Chemosphere, 305: 135458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135458

Shaw, D.M., Pérignon, N.V. and John, M., 1977. Lithium in spilites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 41(11): 1601–1607. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(77)90171-5

Sheikhi Gheshlaghi, R., Ghorbani, M., Sepahi, A.A., Deevsalar, R., Nakashima, K. and Shinjo, R., 2022. The origin of gem spodumene in the Hamadan Pegmatite, Alvand Plutonic Complex, western Iran. The Canadian Mineralogist, 60(2): 249–266. https://doi.org/10.3749/canmin.2000087

Singhm, J. and Kaistha, M.K., 1999. Report on search for tin, tungsten, and lithium mineralisation in Chaur granitoid complex, Sirmaur and Shimla districts, Himachal Pradesh. Geological Survey of India, Northern Region, Lucknow, 12 pp.

Stanley, C., Rumsey, M., Jones, G., Blake, C., Roberts, A., Stirling, J., Carpenter, G., Whitfield, P.S., Grice J.D. and LePage, Y.J., 2007. Jadarite, LiNaSiB₃O₇(OH) a new lithium sodium borosilicate mineral from the Jadar Basin, Serbia. European Journal of Mineralogy, 19(4): 575–580. https://doi.org/10.1127/0935-1221/2007/0019-1741

Statista Available online, 2025. Projected total demand for lithium globally. Retrieved February 6, 2025 from https://www.statista.com/statistics/452025/projected-total-demand-for-lithium-globally/

Steiner, Z., Landing, W.M., Bohlin, M.S., Greaves, M., Prakash, S., Vinayachandran, P.‌N. and Achterberg, E.P., 2022. Variability in the concentration of lithium in the IndoPacific Ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 36(6): e2021GB007184. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GB007184

Stringer, D. and Millan, L., 2019. These Mining Superpowers Supply the World's Lithium. Now They Want to Make Batteries, too. Bloomberg, Retrieved January 23, 2025 from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-06-03/lithium-miners-australia-chile-see-riches-as-ev-battery-makers

Suud, E.M., Suryantini, M. and Zaki, M., 2023. Lithium extraction method from geothermal brine to find suitable method for geothermal fields in Indonesia: A review. IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science, 1159(1): 012011. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1159/1/012011

Sykes, J.P. and Schodde, R. and Davies, R.S., 2019. A global overview of the geology and economics of lithium production. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (AusIMM) Lithium Conference, Perth, Australia. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18537.42088

Teng, F.Z., Mcdonough, W.F., Rudnick, R.L., Dalpé, C., Tomascak, P.B., Chappell, B.W. and Gao, S., 2004. Lithium isotopic composition and concentration of the upper continental crust. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 68(20): 4167–4178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2004.03.031

Thompson, L.A., Richardson, C.A., Gootee, B.F., Wilkins, J. and Fenerty B., 2025. Geology, Geochemistry, and Potential Origins of the Basin Volcano-Sedimentary Lithium Deposit, Kaiser Spring Volcanic Field, Northwestern Arizona, USA. Economic Geology, 120‌(3): 663–688. https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.5138

Trading Economics, 2025. Lithium. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://tradingeconomics.com/commodity/lithium

Trueman, D.L. and Cˇerny´, P., 1982, Exploration for Rare-Element Granitic Pegmatites. In: P. Cerny (Editor), Granitic Pegmatites in Science and Industry: Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course Handbook, pp. 463–493. Retrieved May 15, 2025 from https://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers?referenceid=2240858

Ufine, 2025. Custom Lithium-ion Battery Manufacturer. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.ufinebattery.com/blog/a-complete-history-of-lithium-ionbatteries/ 

U.S. Department of Energy, 2021. NATIONAL BLUEPRINT FOR LITHIUM BATTERIES. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-06/FCAB%20National%20Blueprint%20Lithium%20Batteries%200621_0.pdf

van de Ven, M., Gazley, M., Sterk, R., Aldrich, S. and Werner, E., 2020. Exploration for Lithium-Caesium-Tantalum (LCT) pegmatites in New Zealand. Conference Paper New Zealand Minerals Forum, Hamilton, ON, Canada. Retrieved May 15, 2025 from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345988892_Exploration_for_Lithium-Caesium Tantalum_LCT_pegmatites_in_New_Zealand

Venkateswaran, C., Sreemoolanadhan, H. and Vaish, R., 2022. Lithium aluminosilicate (LAS) glass-ceramics: a review of recent progress. International Materials Reviews, 67(6): 620–657. https://doi.org/10.1080/09506608.2021.1994108

Visual Capitalist, 2025. battery manufacturing. Retrieved February 21, 2025 from https://www.visualcapitalist.com/chinas-dominance-in batterymanufacturing/#:~:text=With%20nearly%20900%20gigawatt%2Dhours,metals%20to%20pr ducing%20the%20EVs

Wang, C., Yu, X., Li, R., Liu, L., Yan, K. and You, C., 2021a. Origin of lithium–potassiumrich brines in the Jianghan Basin, South China: Constraints by water–rock reactions of Mesozoic-Cenozoic igneous rocks. Minerals, 11(12): 1330. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121330

Wang, C., Zheng, M., Zhang, X., Wu, Q., Liu, X., Ren, J. and Chen, S., 2021b. Geothermaltype lithium resources in Southern Xizang, China. Acta Geologica Sinica, 95(3): 860–872. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-6724.14675

Warren, J.K., 2016. Evaporites: A Geological Compendium. Springer, Basel, Switzerland, 1813 pp.

Warren, I., 2021. Techno-Economic Analysis of Lithium Extraction from Geothermal Brines. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. NREL/TP-5700-79178. Retrieved May 15, 2025 from: https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo159005

Yaksic, A. and Tilton, E., 2009. Using the cumulative availability curve to assess the threat of mineral depletion: the case of lithium. Resources Policy, 34(4): 185–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2009.05.002

Yu, X., Wang, C., Huang, H. and Yan, K., 2023a. Origin of lithium in oilfield brines in continental petroliferous basin: Insights from Li and Sr isotopes in the Jianghan Basin, central China. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 160: 106576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2023.106576

Yu, X., Wang, C., Huang, R., Wang, J. and Yan, K., 2023b. Lithium and brine geochemistry in the Qianjiang Formation of the Jianghan Basin, central China. Scientific Reports, 13: 4445. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31421-1

Zhao, H., Ling, K., Qin, S., Lei, M. and Wen, H., 2023a. Modes of occurrence of lithium in black shale in the Nandan area, Guangxi, SW China: Implications for clay-type resources. Ore Geology Reviews, 157: 105409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105409

Zhao, H., Wang, Y. and Cheng, H., 2023b. Recent advances in lithium extraction from lithium-

bearing clay minerals. Hydrometallurgy, 217: 106025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2023.106025

Zhang, H., Tian, S., Wang, D., Li, X., Liu, T., Zhang, Y.J., Fu, X.F., Hao, X.F., Hou, K.J., Zhao, Y. and Qin, Y., 2021. Lithium isotope behaviour during magmatic differentiation and fluid exsolution in the Jiajika granite–pegmatite deposit, Sichuan, China. Ore Geology Reviews, 134: 104139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104139

Zheng, R., Li, Y., Yu, H., Zhang, X., Yang, D., Yan, L., Li, Y., Shu, J. and Su, B.L., 2023a. Ammonium ion batteries: Material, electrochemistry and strategy. Angewandte Chemie, 62(23): e202301629. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202301629

Zheng, M.P., Xing, E.Y., Zhang, X.F., Li, M.M., Che, D., Bu, L.Z., Han, J.H. and Ye, C.Y., 2023b. Classification and mineralization of global lithium deposits and lithium extraction technologies for exogenetic lithium deposits. China Geology, 6(4): 547–566. Retrieved May 15, 2025 from http://en.cgsjournals.com/article/doi/10.31035/cg2023061