Evaluation of Environmental Consequences of Conventional Management for Agroecosystems in Khorasan Province

بوم شناسی کشاورزی

Article 3, Volume 13, Issue 2 - Serial Number 48, June 2021, Pages 211-235   

Document Type: Scientific - Research

DOI: 10.22067/jag.v1i1.35461

Authors

Alireza Koocheki¹; Surur Khorramdel^{* 1}; Leila Jafari²

¹Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran

²Department, Facultyof Agriculture and Natural Resources,University of Hormozgann, Iran.

Abstract

Introduction[1]
Ecosystem Services frameworks are emerging as an approach of capturing the wider impacts of policy decisions or evaluating land use change in order to more comprehensively take into account the range of effects on the environment, and on the benefits humans receive from. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2005) defines ecosystem services as ‘‘the benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems”. Costanza et al. (1997) postulated that ecosystem services comprise of ‘‘flows of materials, energy, and information” from the natural environment to the society. Yield and production for agricultural crops have been improved during the last century, however, these achievements have caused different environmental social and safety problems for human and the environment such as increase in greenhouse gases, eutrophication of rivers, lakes and other water bodies.
This study aimed to evaluate environmental consequences of agroecosystems managed conventionally in three Razavi Khorasan, South Khorasan and North Khorasan Provinces. The environmental consequences of intensive agriculture were grouped into damages maid to natural resources such as water, air, soil, biodiversity and human health affected by over-consumption of chemical fertilizer, herbicide and pesticide.
Materials and Methods
Cultivated area and consumption of chemical inputs in North Khorasan, South Khorasan and Razavi Khorasan provinces during 2004-2009 were determined. Environmental impacts were calculated using six categories i.e. air (emission of greenhouse gases such as N₂O, CO₂ and CH₄ to the atmosphere), water (quality criteria such as NO₃^- and pesticide concentrations in water), soil (amounts of NO₃^-, organic carbon, pesticides and herbicides in soil), biodiversity (losses of pastures, jungles and bee hives), human health (residues of Diazinone, Azinophos-Methyl and NO₃^- in some vegetables) and natural resources (losses of nitrogen fertilizers via leaching and volatilization and pesticides consumption effects) affected by chemical inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.
Results and discussion
Results indicated that decreasing trends in use of chemical pesticide and herbicide were observed in different agroecosystems of Khorasan. Nitrate of water used in agricultural area was higher than allowable limit of 10 mg per liter. Residues of chemical herbicide including Diazinone and Azinophos- Methyl in irrigated water were 23.18±16.35 and 15.78±0.68 mg.kg^-1, respectively. The maximum emission of greenhouse gases including CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O were calculated in Razavi Khorasan. Nitrate concentration in the soil was higher than the critical limit. Organic carbon content in natural habitat and rangeland was higher than that in the cropland. Also, total number of honey hives was increasing but the hives for local bees were almost reaching to zero in the recent years. The maximum range of nitrate for tomato, eggplant, cucumber and spinach were 1.4, 0.75, 17.15 and 7.38% higher than allowable limit, respectively. For sugar beet upper and lower limits of nitrate were lower than the allowable limit. Conclusion
Soil is a very slow forming resource, and similarly to other habitats and ecosystems, it is coming under intensifying pressures due to anthropocentric and industrial activities. Soil ecosystem services provide multiple benefits to all organisms.
Nitrate concentration for leafy vegetable was higher than for kitchen garden plants. Nitrogen and phosphorus contents for soil in Razavi Khorasan were higher relative to North Khorasan and South Khorasan. Nitrogen enhanced soil carbon accumulation as it stimulates plant growth and its productivity. However, accumulation of soil carbon depends on the delicate balance between increased carbon inputs to soil from litter and enhanced soil respiration rates. Crop residues and manure are returned to the soil in traditional farming systems, improving soil ecosystem services and soil chemical, physical and biological characteristics. On the other hand, application of inorganic and chemical fertilizers to benefit crop yields often decreases the soil services as it has negative influences on soil structure, infiltration and water-holding capacity.
 

Keywords

Allowable limit; Critical limit; Greenhouse gas; Intensive agriculture; Pesticide

References

Abou-Arab, A.A.K., and Abou-Donia, M.A., 2001. Pesticide residues in some Egyptian spices and medicinal plants as affected by processing. Food Chemistry 72(4): 439-445.

Accinelli, C., Dinelli, G., Vicari, A., and Catizone, P., 2001. Atrazine and metolachlor degradation in subsoils. Biology and Fertility of Soils 33: 495-500.

Agricultural Organization of Khorasan Razavi., 2008. Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. 402 pp. (In Persian) Available at: www.agri-jihad.ir (In Persian)

Agricultural Organization of Khorasan Razavi., 2009. Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. 402 pp. (In Persian) Available at: www.agri-jihad.ir (In Persian)

Agricultural Organization of Khorasan Razavi., 2011. Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. 219 pp. (In Persian) Available at: www.agri-jihad.ir (In Persian)

Agricultural Organization of Khorasan Razavi., 2012. Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture. 240 pp. (In Persian) Available at: www.agri-jihad.ir (In Persian)

Alvey, S., and Crowly, D.E., 1995. Influence of organic amendments on biodegradation of atrazine as a nitrogen source. Journal of Environmental Quality 24: 1156-1162.

Ambrus, A., Lantos, V., Visin, E., and Lṡarvi, L., 1981. General method for determination of pesticide residues in sample of plant origin, soil and water. Extraction and clean up. Journal Association of Chemistry 64(3): 736-737.

Barata, C., Solayan, A., and Porte, C., 2004. Role of B-esterases in assessing toxicity of organophosphorus (Chlorpyrifos, Malathion) and carbamate (carbofuran) pesticides to Daphnia magna. Aquatic Toxicology 66(2): 125-139.

Bazrgar, A.B., Soltani, A., Koocheki, A., Zeinali, E., and Ghaemi, A.R., 2013. Evaluation of the environmental impacts of pesticides used in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) production systems in Khorasan provinces. Agroecology 5(2): 122-133. (In Persian with English Summary)

Bouwman, A., 2001. Global estimates of gaseous emissions from agricultural land. Rome, FAO.

Bremner, J.M., 1970. Nitrogen Total, Regular Kjeldahl Method. In: Methods of Soil Analysis, Part II: Chemical and Microbiological Properties. 2^nd Ed. Agronomy 9(1). A.S.A. Inc., S.S.S.A. Inc., Madison publisher, Wisconsin., USA, p. 610-616.

Brittain, C.A., Vighi, M., Bommarco, R., Settle, J., and Ptts, S.G., 2010. Impacts of a pesticide on pollinator species richness at different spatial scales. Basic and Applied Ecology 11(2): 106-115.

Brouwer, R., 1999. Market Integration of Agricultural Externalities: A Rapid Assessment Across EU Countries. Report for European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.

Bues, R., Bussières, P., Dadomo, M., Dumas, Y., Garcia-Pomar, M.I., and Lyannaz, J.P., 2004. Assessing the environmental impacts of pesticides used on processing tomato crops. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 102: 155-162.

Butz, S., and Stan, H.J., 1995. Screening of 265 pesticides in water by thin layer chromatography with AMD. Analytical Chemistry, 67: 620- 630.

Castilho, I.A.A., and Fenz, N., 1999. Organ chlorine and organophosphorus pesticide residue in the Atoya river basin Chinandega Nicaragua. Environmental Pollution 110(2000): 523-33.

Chirinda, N., Olesen, J.E., Porter, J.R., and Schjonning, P., 2010. Soil properties, crop production and greenhouse gas emissions from organic and inorganic fertilizer-based arable cropping systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 139: 584-594.

Cooper, J.M., Butler, G., Leifert, and C., 2011. Life cycle analysis of greenhouse gas emissions from organic and conventional food production systems, with and without bio-energy options. NJAS-Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 58: 185-192.

Cupples, A.M., Sims, G.K., Hultgren, R.P., and Hart, S.E., 2000. Effect of soil conditions on the degradation of cloransulam-methyl. Journal of Environmental Quality 29:786-794.

Dakhel, N., Barriuso, E., Charnay, M.P., Touratier, C.H., and Ambrosi, D., 2001. Amitrole degradation in vineyard soils in relation to pedo-climatic conditions. Biology and Fertility of Soils 33: 490-494.

Dale, V.H., and Polasky, S., 2007. Measures of the effects of agricultural practices on ecosystem services. Ecological Economics 64: 286-296.

Day, B.E., Jordan, L.S., and Hendrixon, R.T., 1961. The decomposition of amitrole in California soils. Weeds 9: 443-456.

De Groot, R.S., Wilson, M.A., and Boumans, R.M.J., 2002. A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem function, goods and services. Ecological Economics 41: 393-408.

Dell, C.J., Salon, P.R., Franks, C.D., Benham, E.C., and Plowden, Y., 2008. No-till and cover crop impacts on soil carbon and associated properties on Pennsylvania dairy farms. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 63(3): 136–142.

Denkler, M., 1994. Mikrobielle Abbau und Verlagrung ausgewelter Pflanzenschutzmittel im Ackerboeden, Forschungsbreich Bodenwissenschaften Seite p. 15-20.

DFG., 1990. Zusammen fassung der Arbeiten Ueber Verhalten und Nebenwirkungen von Herbizide, DFG-Forschung. Seite p. 320-340.

Diaz Goebes M., Stader R., and Davidson C., 2003. An ammonia emisiion inventory for fertilizer application in the United Sattes. Atmospheric Environment 37: 2539-2550.

Edwards, J.H., Wood, C.W., Thurlow, D.L., and Ruf, M.E., 1992. Tillage and crop rotation effects on fertility status of a hapludult soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 56: 1577-1582.

Eisenhauer, N., Klier, M., Partsch, S., Sabais, A.C.W., Scherber, C., Weisser, W.W., and Scheu, S., 2009. No interactive effects of pesticides and plant diversity on soil microbial biomass and respiration. Applied Soil Ecology 42: 31-36.

El-Lakwah, F.A., Hamed, M.S., and Darwish, A.A., 1995. Determination of certain organochlorine and organphosphorus pesticide residues in home-produced tomatoes and cucumbers used for consumption in two Egyptian governorates [Egypt]. Annals of Agricltural Science, Moshtohor 33(1): 399-407.

Evans, R., 1995. Soil Erosion and Land Use: Towards a Sustainable Policy. Cambridge Environmental Initiative, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.

Evans, R., 1996. Soil Erosion and its Impact in England and Wales. Friends of the Earth Trust, London. Evans, H.S., Madden, P., Douglas, C., Adak, G.K., O'Brien, S.J., Djuretic, T., Wall, P.G., and Stanwell-Smith, R., 1998. General outbreaks of infectious disease in England and Wales 1995-96. Comm. Dis. Public Health 1(3): 165-171.

Fallahpour, F., Aminghafouri, A., Ghalegolab Behbahani, A. and Bannayan, M., 2012. The environmental impact assessment of wheat and barley production by using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Environment, Development and Sustainability 14: 979-992

FAO and WHO., 2000. Codex Alimentarius Commission. CX/PR00/5.

FAO. 2003. World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030. An FAO Perspective. http://www.fao.org

Fleischer, G., and Waibel, H., 1998. Externalities by pesticide use in Germany. Paper presented to Expert Meeting. The Externalities of Agriculture: What do we Know? EEA, Copenhagen, May 1998.

Forouzangohar, M., Haghnia, G.H., Koocheki, A., Tabatabaie-Yazdi, F., 2005. Effect of organic amendments and soil texture on degradation of Atrazine and Metamitron. JWSS- Isfahan University of Technology 9(1): 131-142. (In Persian with English Summary)

Fowler, C., and Mooney, P., 1990. The Threatened Gene: Food, Policies and the Loss of Genetic Diversity. The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge.

Fuentes, M., Govaerts, B., Hidalgo, C., Etchevers, J., González-Martín, I., Hernández-Hierro, J., Sayre, K.D., and Dendooven, L., 2010. Organic carbon and stable 13C isotope in conservation agriculture and conventional systems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42: 551-557.

Gallai, N., Salles, J.M., Settele, J., and Vaissière, B.E., 2009. Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline. Ecological Economics 68(3): 810-821.

Gasol, C.M., Gabarrell, X., Anton, A., Rigola, M., Carrasco, J., Ciria, M.J., and Rieradevall, J., 2007. Life cycle assessment of a Brassica carinata bioenergy cropping system in southern Europe. Biomass and Bioenergy 31: 543-555.

Ghermandi, A., van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., Brander, L.M., de Groot, H.L.F., and Nunes, P.A.L.D., 2010. The values of natural and human-made wetlands: a meta-analysis. Water Resources Research 46: W12516.

Grandy, A.S., Loecke, T.D., Parr, S., and Robertson, G.P., 2006. Long-term trends in nitrous oxide emissions, soil nitrogen, and crop yields of till and no-till cropping systems. Journal of Environmental Quality 35: 1487-1495.

Hadizadeh, M.H., Nassiri Mahallati, M., Koocheki, A., Zand, E., and Tabatabayee Yazdi, F., 2009. Effects of organic matters and solfusulfurune noncentration on its sustainability in soil. Iranian Journal of Field Crops Research 7(1): 301-309. (In Persian with English Summary)

Hanley, N., Whitby, M., and Simpson, I., 1999. Assessing the success of agri-environmental policy in the UK. Land Use Policy 16: 67-80.

Hart, M.R., and Brookes, P.C., 1999. Soil microbial biomass and mineralization of soil organic matter after 19 years of cumulative field applications of pesticides. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 28: 1641–1649.

Hashimoto, M., Nose, T., and Muriguchi, Y., 2002. Wood products: potential carbon sequestration and impact on net carbon emissions of industrialized countries. Environmental Science and Policy 5: 183-193.

Hegazi, M.E.A., Afify, A.M.R., Hamama, A.A., and El-Refahey, T.F.A., 2006. Persistence and behavior of certain insecticide residues on tomato fruits in relation to processing and biochemical consistuents of fruits. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research 84: 853-866.

Henklmann, G., 2004. Dasverhalten Von Pflan zenschutz mitteln imAgrar oekosystem. Dipl. Arbeit, lfl mueunchen, Seit p. 25-40.

Hester, R.E., and Harrison, R.M., 2010. Scosystems Serivices. RSC Publishing, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK 176 pp.

Heywood, V.H., 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme and Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Hof, F.L., and Willett, L.S., 1995. The US Beekeeping Industry. USDA Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Washington, DC.

HSE., 1998a. Pesticides Incidents Report 1997/8. Health and Safety Executive, Sudbury.

HSE., 1998b. Pesticide Users and their Health: Results of HSE's 1996/7 Feasibility Study. Available at: http://www.open.gov.uk/hse/hsehome.htm

Humbert, S., Margni, M., Charles, R., Torres Salazar, O.M., Quirós, A.L., and Jolliet, O., 2007. Toxicity assessment of the main pesticides used in Costa Rica. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 118: 183–190.

Hutchinson, J.J., Campbell, C.A., and Desjardins, R.L., 2007. Some perspectives on carbon sequestration in agriculture. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 142: 288–302.

IPCC, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Data Distribution Center., 1999. Providing climate change and related scenarios for impacts assessments. Climatic Research Unit, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, CD-ROM Version 1.0, April 1999.

Izadi, E., Rashed Mohassel, M.H., Mahmoudi, G., and Dehghan, M., 2011. Evaluation of crops sensitivity to total (Mesosulforun+Metsulforun) herbicide soil residue. Journal of Plant Protection 25(2): 194-201. (In Persian with English Summary)

Kamkar, B., and Mahdavi Damghani, A.M., 2008. Principle of Sustainable Agriculture. Jihad Daneshgahi of Mashhad Press, Mashhad, Iran. (In Persian)

Klein, A.M., Vaissière, B.E., Cane, J.H., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S.A., Kremen, C., and Tscharntke, T., 2007. Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274(1608): 303–313.

Koocheki, A., 2002. Sustainable agriculture and environment. Report of Food Security Project, Department of Agricultural Science, Academy of Sciences of the Islamic Republic of Iran. pp. 664-605. (In Persian)

Koocheki, A., Nassiri Mahallati, M., Amin Ghafouri, A., Mahloji, M., and Fallahpour, F., 2016. Monetary value of agroecosystem services of wheat fields in Khorasan Razavi province. Agroecology 8(4): 612-627. (In Persian with English Summary)

Koocheki, A., Shabahang, J., Khorramdel, S., Azimi, R., and Aghel, H., 2010. Documentation of farming management with GIS and ArcView: A case study for agricultural research station of Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Iranian Journal of Field Crops Research 8(6): 909-919. (In Persian with English Summary)

Kovach, J., Petzoldt, C., Degni, J., and Tette, J., 2004. A method to measure the environmental impact of pesticides: updated EIQ values. Available at website: http://www.nysipm.cornell/edu/publications/EIQ/default.asp (verified at 20 February 2011)

Locke, M.A., and Zablotowicz, R.M., 2004. Pesticides in soil– benefits and limitations to soil health. In: P. Schjonning, S. ELmholt, and B.T. Christensen (Eds.). Managing soil quality: challenges in modern agriculture. Chapter 14. CAB international, Wallingford, England, p. 239-260.

Lv, Y., Gu, S., and Guo, D., 2010. Valuing environmental externalities from rice–wheat farming in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Ecological Economics 69: 1436-1442.

Mahdavi Damghani, A., Koocheki, A., Rezvani Moghaddam, P., and Nassiri Mahallati, M., 2005. Ecological Sustainability of a Wheat-cotton Agroecosystem in Khorassan. Iranian Journal of Field Crops Research 3(1): 129-142. (In Persian with English Summary)

Maheswari, S.T., and Ramesh, A., 2007. Adsorption and degradation of sulfosulfuron in soils. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 127: 97-103.

MEA, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment., 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington DC.

Mehmet, F.G., Certel, M., and Göҫmen, H., 2006. Residue contents of DDVP (Dichlorvos) and diazinon applied on cucumbers grown in greenhouses and their reduction by duration of a pre-hervest interval and post-harvest culinary applications. Food Chemistry 98: 127-135.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)., 2005. Summary for decision makers. In: Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis, 1-24. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Moorman, T.B., Cowan, J.K., Arthur, E.L., and Coats, J.R., 2001. Organic amendments to enhance herbicide biodegradation in contaminated soils. Biology and Fertility of Soils 33: 541-545.

Motamedzadegan, A., Mortazavi, A., Maghsoodloo, Y., Amiri, B., and Esmailzadeh Kenari, R., 2006. Evaluation of pesticide residues in melons sprayed three times with diazinon on Khorasn-Razavi province. Agricultural Science and Technology Journal 2: 13-19.

Nassiri Mahallati, M., Koocheki, A., Rezvani, P., and Beheshti, A., 2007. Agroecology. Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Press, Mashhad, Iran 459 pp. (In Persian)

Norris, K., Potts, S.G., and Mortimer, S.R., 2010. Ecosystem services and food production. In: R.E. Hester and R.M. Harrison (Eds.) Ecosystem Services. Issues in Environmental Science and Technology. Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing, UK. 52-69.

Nosrati, A., Iranbakhsh, A.R., and Saboori, M.S., 2007. A survey on dispersion and disintegration of herbicides 2, 4 D and Atrazin in field conditions. Pajouhesh and Sazandegi (75): 86-96. (In Persian with English Summary)

Oglethorpe, D., Edgerton, N., andHanley, N., 2000. Modeling the demand and supply of environmental goods for encient public good provision. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the Agricultural Economics Society 14-17 April, Manchester.

Paetzold, S., 1998. Herbizid anwendung im obstbu-Messung des Abbau-Von Simazin in Loessboeden. Institut fuer BodenKunde, University of Bon, Seite p. 5-30.

Pearce, D.W., and Turner, R.H., 1990. Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment. Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York.

Pedersen, T.L‌‌., 1988. Elements of toxicology and chemical risk assessment, a handbook for nonscientists, attorneys and decision makers (2^nd Ed). Environmental Corporation, Washington DC, USA.

Pimentel, D., Acguay, H., Biltonen, M., Rice, P., Silva, M., Nelson, J., Lipner, V., Giordano, S., Harowitz, A., and D'Amore, M., 1992. Environmental and economic cost of pesticide use. Bioscience 42(10): 750-760.

Pimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., Sinclair, K., Kunz, D., McNair, M., Crist, S., Shpritz, L., Fitton, L., Sa€ouri, R., and Blair, R., 1995. Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and con- servation benefits. Science 267: 1117-1123.

Pretty, J., Hine, R., Gee, D., and Vaz, S., 1999. The Externalities of European Agriculture: Towards Fair and Encient Pricing. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.

Pretty, J.N., Brett, C., Gee, D., Hine, R.E., Mason, C.F., Morison, J.I.L., Raven, H., Rayment, M.D., and Van Der Bijl, G., 2000. An assessment of the total external costs of UK agriculture. Agricultural Systems 65: 113-136.

RAFI., 1997. Human Nature: Agricultural Biodiversity and Farm-Based Food Security (Report for the UN FAO, Rome). Rural Advancement Foundation International, Canada.

Rahmani, H.R., 2006. Investigation of nitrate pollution in the soil, water and plants in some agricultural fields in Baraan (Isfahan). Environmental Sciences 11: 23-34. (In Persian with English Summary)

Rao, N.S.S., 1999. Soil Microbiology. Science Publishers 407 pp.

Rezvani Moghadam, P., Ghorbani, R., Koocheki, A., Alimoradi, L., Azizi, G., and Siyamargooyi, A., 2009. Evaluation of pesticide residue in agricultural products: a case study on diazinon residue rate in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and melon (Cucumis melo). Environmental Sciences 6(3): 63-72. (In Persian with English Summary)

Roger, P.A., Simpson, I., Oficialc, R., Ardales, S., and Jimenez, R., 1994. Effects of pesticides on soil and water microflora and mesofauna in wetland rice fields: a summary of current knowledge and extrapolation to temperate environments. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 34: 1057-1068.

Shayeghi, M., Khoobdel, M., and Vatandoos, H., 2007. Determination of organophosphorus insecticides (Malathion and Diazinon) residue in the drinking water. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 10(17): 2900-2904.

Shayeghi, M., Motesadi Zarandi, S., Ladoni, H., and Shayeghi, S., 2000. Assessing Lindane residual in the rice fields surface layers: using TLC method. The Journal of Qazvin University of Medical Sciences 4(1): 29-35. (In Persian with English Summary)

Snyder, C.S., Bruulsema, T.W., Jensen, T.L., and Fixen, P.E., 2009. Review of greenhouse gas emissions from crop production systems and fertilizer management effects. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 133: 247–266.

Soltani, A., Rajabi, M.R., Soltani, E., and Zeinali, E., 2011. Evaluation of environmental impact of crop production using LCA: wheat in Gorgan, Final Report, Research Vice-Presidency, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources 201-218. (In Persian with English summary)

Sorode, S.V., Lalitha, P., and Krishnamurty, P.N., 1981. Residues of fenthion in/on musk melon. Journal of Ethological Research 5: 179-181.

Steiner, R., McLaughlin, L., Faeth, P., and Janke, R., 1995. Incorporating externality costs in productivity measures: A case study using US agriculture. In: V. Barbett, R. Payne and R. Steiner, (Eds.), Agricultural Sustainability: Environmental and Statistical Considerations. John Wiley, New York, pp. 209-230.

Strek, H.J., 2005. The Science of Dupoint’s soil residual herbicides in Canada. p. 31-44. In: R.C. Van Acker, (Ed.) Soil residual herbicides: Sience and Mnagement. Topics in Canadian weed science, volume III. Sainte Anne-de Bellevue, Quebec.

Syswerda, S.P., 2009. Ecosystem services from agriculture across a management intensity gradient in Southwest Michigan. Ph.D. Desertation, Michigan State University.

TEEB Foundations., 2010. In: P. Kumar, (Ed.). The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Ecological and Economic Foundations. Earth Scan, London, Washington.

Theng, B.K.G., Kookana, R.S., and Rahman, A., 2000. Environmental concerns of pesticides in soil and groundwater and management strategies in oceania. In: P.M. Huang and I.K. Iskandar (Eds.), Soils and Groundwater Pollution and Remediation. CRC Press. Boca Raton. Florida.

Thorstensen, C.W., and Lode, O., 2000. Laboratory degradation studies of bentazone, dichlorprop, MCPA and propiconazole in Norwegian soils. Journal of Environmental Quality 30: 947-953.

Tilman, D., Cassman, K., Matson, P., Naylor, R., and Polasky, S., 2002. Agricultural sustainability and the costs and benefits of intensive production practices. Nature 418: 671-677.

Tisdal, S.L., Nelson, W.L., Beaton, J.D., and Halvin, J.L., 1993. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. 5^th Edition, Mac Millan.

Torestensson, N.T.L., 1987. Microbial decomposition of herbicides in soil. p. 249-270. In: D.H. Hutson and T.R. Roberts (Eds.), Herbicides. John Wiley and Sons Publication, NY.

Tscharntke, T., Klein, A.M., Kruess, A., Steffan-Dewenter, I., and Thies, C., 2005. Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity– ecosystem service management. Ecology Letters 8(8): 857–874.

Tzilivakis, J., Jaggard K., Lewis K.A., May M., and Warner D.J., 2005. Environmental impact and economic assessment for UK sugar beet production systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107: 341–358.

Vidair, C.A., 2004. Age dependence of organophosphate and carbamate neurotoxicity in the postnatal rat: Extrapolation to the human. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 196(2): 287-302.

Walkley, A., and Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the Degtareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37: 29-38.

Walter, W., 2005. Mikrobieller Abbau organische Fermedstoffe im Boden. Didaktik der chemie, University Bayreuth, Seite p. 2-4.

Willis, K., Garrod, G., and Saunders, C., 1993. Valuation of the South Downs and Somerset Levels Environmentally Sensitive Areas. Centre for Rural Economy. University of Newcastle Upon Tyne.

Winfree, R., Aguilar, A., Vazquez, D.P., Le Buhn, G., and Aizen, M.A., 2009. A meta-analysis of bees’ responses to anthropogenic disturbance. Ecology 90: 2086-2076.

Greer, F.R., Michael M.D., and Shannon, M.D., 2005. Infant Methemoglobinemia: the role of dietary nitrate in food and water. American Academy of Pediatrics 116(3): 784 -786.