REE-Y-Ti-Th mineralization in the albite bearing metasomatite and metasomatized rhyolite hosted in Choghart magnetite-apatite deposit, Central Iran: Interplay of evaporitic brines, hydrothermal-magmatic fluids

زمین شناسی اقتصادی

Volume 15, Issue 2 - Serial Number 37, September 2023, Pages 1-56   

Document Type: Research Article

DOI: 10.22067/econg.2023.80748.1066

Authors

Kiamars Hosseini^{* 1}; Roghayeh Zabihi Khargh²; Mohammad Hossein Moradian Bafghi³

¹Ph.D. student, Department of Geology, Shahid Beheshti University Tehran, Tehran, Iran

²M.Sc., Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran; Iran Minerals Research and Processing Center, Tehran, Iran

³M.Sc., Iran Central Iron Ore Company, Bafgh, Yazd, Iran

Abstract

Macroscopic, microscopic and geochemical studies carried out on albite-bearing metasomatites and metasomatic rhyolites hosting the magnetite-apatite deposit of Chogharat indicate the presence of three generations of albite with different concentrations of REE-Y-Ti-Th, in response to T-P reduction and chemical changes of the fluids and the ratio of fluid to rock. The geochemical analysis of the low Ca/Na fluids shows a deficiency in REE-Th mineralization in the white albites, while in the fluids with medium Ca/Na, the REE mineralization (REE>Th) has occurred in the pinkish albites. In contrast, fluids with high Ca/Na indicate Th mineralization (Th>REE) in the red albites. The stable isotopes of C-O on the paragenetic calcites show REE-Y-Ti-Th mineralization of albites due to High-T hydrothermal fluids. Otherwise, the stable O-C isotopes of the Ghoghart apatites and stable isotopes of S in the ore deposits of the BMD verify the role of evaporitic brines and fluid-rock interaction on the mineralization. The presence of calcite and titanite, associated with the calcic-amphiboles and clinopyroxenes, Ca-inclusions in the thorite structure and Ca-content of the thorites, indicate thorite mineralization from the Co3^2- and Ca²⁺ fluids due to low activity of the chlorine. According to this study, the source of metasomatism is mainly evaporitic brines with a minor amount of magmatic and related hydrothermal fluids. Mineralization is the result of interaction of the magmatic and hydrothermal fluids of the Late Ediacaran- Early Cambrian plutonic/ subvolcanic intrusions with the evaporitic brines, derived from the synchronous evaporitic sequence.
 
Introduction
Metasomatism often causes the extensive mineralogic and chemical changes of rocks (Enjvik et al., 2018). Alkaline metasomatism, as one of the most important mineralization processes, could be classified to the high-temperature and medium- to low-temperature types (Zhao, 2005). High-T and medium- to low-T alkaline metasomatism are associated with the Nb-Ta-Li-Br and U-REE mineralization, respectively. The mean array of U, Th, and REE of the associated ore deposits of alkali-metasomatism is not high, but because of their relatively high tonnage are considered important prospecting goals that usually form in the faulted area and in relation to the deep regional structures (Zhao, 2005; Cuney and Kyser, 2008). Until now different sources of metasomatic processes are suggested for the Ghoghart magnetite-apatite in the BMD (e.g. Khoshnoodi et al., 2017; Aftabi and Mohseni, 2020; Bonyadi and Sadeghi, 2020; Aftabi et al., 2021; Majidi et al., 2021). In addition, association of Ti with this type of ore deposits is less reported and associated with U(Th), REE, Ti is considered a rare phenomena in the ore deposits of this district, not reported yet. In this research, the nature of REE-Y-Ti-Th mineralizing fluids in the Ghoghart deposit would be studied.
 
Research method
After field studies, 44 samples of the Ghoghart host metasomatic rhyolites are selected for petrographic microscopy out of 63 collected samples. For complementary mineralogical studies, 24 samples of the 3-generation albite-bearing metasmatites are studied by the Scanning Electron microscopy, model LEO-1400 with 17-19kV, ray dim. 12 and 20 nA and 12 samples of different-generation albites are analyzed XRD by the Philips Xpert pro in the Iranian mineral processing center and 9 samples are analyzed by the Raman spectrometer of Senterra 2009 model of the Germany Brucker Co. with penetration depth of 2µm, spectral width of 200-3500 cm^-1, wavelength of 785 nm, CCD detector and resolution> 3 cm^-1 in the nano-electronic Lab of the Tehran University. Furthermore 22 samples of metasomatites with different generations of albites are analyzed ICP-MS at the Zarazma Lab, Iran. To constrain the source of mineralizing fluids, O-H isotopic analysis of 4 apatite samples are performed at the Hangaria Lab, Hungry. After petrography of fluid inclusion on the 1-generation calcite of albite-bearing metasomatites, 8 selected samples of calcite are analyzed in the Ottawa University Lab., Canada.
 
Results
The macroscopic, microscopic, and geochemical studies on the host albite-bearing metasomatites and metasomatic rhyolites of the Ghoghart magnetite-apatite deposit show extensive and intense effect of alkali-metasomatic and hydrothermal processes, associated with the sodic, sodic-calcic, potassic, and late carbonate± quartz alterations. The REE-Y-Ti-Th mineralization is related to the sodic-calcic alteration, which is shown as the 2- and the 3-generation albites. Intimate association of this mineralization with the related albites reveal their common genesis and follow the spatial pattern of the sodic, and sodic-calcic alterations. The REE and incompatible REE patterns show a common pattern of the LREE enrichment to the HREE, which is the characteristic of subduction zone magmas, in all samples. The stable O-H isotopes of the paragenetic calcite with the albites show albitization and REE-Y-Ti-Th mineralization due to the HT-hydrothermal fluids. The stable O-H isotopic study on the 1-generation apatites of the Ghoghart magnetite ore rocks display the role of evaporitic brines and rock-fluid interaction on the ore formation. Mixing of magmatic and HT-hydrothermal fluids with these evaporitic brines caused mineralization and associated alteration in the Ghoghard deposit. Moreover, stable sulfur isotopes show evaporitic brines as the main source of mineralizing fluids with minor effect of magmatic fluids. Infiltration of the hot oxide brines enriched in the REE-Y-Ti-Th, P, and Ca ± Fe, caused the weak sodic alteration (> 170 ºC) and sodic-calcic alteration (> 280ºC) of the host rocks, which was associated with extensive deposition of the magnetite-albite, low-grade magnetite-scapolite, and high-grade magnetite-actinolite. In the late stage of sodic-calcic alteration, magnetite-apatite (280-245ºC) has formed. The potassic alteration after the former aforementioned mineralization phases (> 280ºC, ~ 200ºC) and then the sericite, chlorite, and epidote assemblage is formed by the LT-hydrothermal fluids (180-250ºC) as the last stage of mineralization (Bonyadi and Sadeghi, 2020). Microtheremore data of the fluid inclusions of the calcites, related to the albite-bering metasomatites, and 1-generation apatites confirm the recorded alteration temperatures.
Association of the calcite, titanite with the calcic-amphiboles and clino-pyroxene (actinolite and augite), Ca-inclusions in the thorite structure and Ca content of the thorites (CaO ~ 2.3%) indicate deposition of the thorites from the Ca²⁺ and Co₃^2- bearing carbonate fluids due to the low-activity of Cl in the REE-Y-Ti-Th mineralization zones. According to this study, fluids with low-content of Ca/Na, did not cause or were associated with minor REE and Th mineralization (white 1-generation albites). The fluids with medium amount of Ca/Na caused the REE mineralization (REE>Th, 2-generation pale pink albitities) whereas the high Ca/Na content fluids was associated with the Th mineralization (Th>REE, 3-generation dark pink albites). The Th deposition occurred under the Eh and ph changes and also the fluid/rock ratio, revealed by the exsolution evidences; In fact, the increase of ph has occurred due to the expelling of CO₂ from the mineralizing fluids along the fractures.This phenomena had a considerable effect on deposition of the Th-bearing carbonate complexes. The ph increase of the mineralizing fluid was associated with silica content of the fluid as the silicic acid that caused deposition of the Th-silicates.
 
Discussion and conclusion
Subduction of the Prototethys under the central Iranian crustal blocks during the late Neoproterozoic-Early Cambrian caused an extensive granitoid magmatism that was accompanied by deposition of the equivalent evaporitic-volcaniclastic deposition (Esfordi Formation) in the extensional back-arc basins (Ramezani and Tucker, 2003). The edicaran-lower Cambrian Fe-P mineralization in the BMD shows a genetic relation with these granitoids, related volcanic rocks, and associated synchronous evaporitic-volcaniclastic deposits. In fact, the intrusive and subvolcanic intrusions, as a thermal, engine caused heating of the evaporitic brines of the synchronous adjacent basins. The most important characteristic of these brines is their high Na/K and Cl/S content.  These hot alkali-enriched, sulfur- oxide brines leached their passing host rocks and transferred the REE-Y-Ti-Th elements. The result was sodic and sodic-calcic metasomatism with REE-Y-Ti-Th mineralization. The results of this research constrain the mainly evaporitic brines with a minor amount of magmatic and related hydrothermal fluids as the source of metasomatism. In fact, mineralization is the result of magmatic and hydrothermal fluids of the Late Ediacaran- Early Cambrian plutonic/ subvolcanic interaction with the evaporitic brines, derived from the evaporitic sequence (Esfordi Formation).
 
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate the Iranian Central Iron Ore Company manager and staff for their assistance during this research.

Keywords

REE-Y-Ti-Th mineralization; metasomatism; evaporitic brine and hydrothermal fluids; Choghart ore deposit; central Iran

References

Aftabi, A., Atapour, H., Mohseni, S. and Babaki, A., 2021. Geochemical discrimination among different types of banded iron formations (BIFs): A comparative review. Ore Geology Reviews, 136: 104244.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104244

Aftabi, A. and Mohseni, S., 2020. Combined igneous and hydrothermal source for the Kiruna-type Bafq magnetite-apatite deposits in Central Iran; trace element and oxygen isotope studies of magnetite by Mehdipour Ghazi et al (2019), (Ore Geology Reviews 105, 590-604). Ore Geology Reviews, 125: 103113.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103113

Alexandre, P., 2010. Mineralogy and geochemistry of the sodium metasomatism related uranium occurrence of Aricheng South, Guyana. Mineralium Deposita, 45(1): 351–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-010-0278-7

Allen, J.R. and Wiggins, W.D., 1993. Dolomite reservoir: geochemical techniques for evaluation, origin and distribution. American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Tulsa, Oklahoma, 129 pp. https://doi.org/10.1306/CE36576

Andreoli, M.A.G., Smith, C.B., Watkeys, M., Moore, J.M., Ashwal, L.D. and Hart, R.J., 1994. The geology of the Steenkampskraal monazite deposit, South Africa: Implications for REE-Th-Cu mineralization in charnockite-granulite terranes. Economic Geology, 89(5): 994–1016. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.89.5.994

Asran, M., Ezzat, M. and Rahman, A., 2012. The Pan-African calck-alkaline granitoids and the associated mafic microgranular enclaves (MME) around Wadi Abu Zawal area, North Eastern desert, Egypt: geology, geochemistry and petrogenesis. Journal of Biology and Earth Sciences, 2(1): 1–16. Retrieved July 11, 2019 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268407031

Atapour, H. and Aftabi, A., 2020. Comment on Two-tiered magmatic-hydrothermal and skarn origin of magnetite from Gol-e-Ghohar iron ore deposit of SE Iran: In situ LA-ICP-MS analyses. Ore Geology Reviews, 127: 102942.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.102942‏

Atherton, M.P. and Ghani, A.A., 2002. Slab Breakoff: a model for Caledonian, late granite syn-collisional magmatism in the orthotectonic (metamorphic) zone of Scotland and Donegal, Ireland. Lithos, 62(3–4): 65–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-4937(02)00111-1

Bell, A.S. and Simon, A., 2011. Experimental evidence for the alteration of the Fe3+/ΣFe of silicate melt caused by the degassing of chlorine-bearing aqueous volatiles. Geology, 39(5): 499–502. https://doi.org/10.1130/G31828.1

Berberian, M. and King, G.C.P., 1981. Towards a Paleogeography and Tectonic Evolution of Iran. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 18(11): 210–265. https://doi.org/10.1139/e81-163

Bonyadi, Z., Davidson, G.J., Mehrabi, B., Meffre, S. and Ghazban, F., 2011. Significance of apatite REE depletion and monazite inclusions in the brecciated Se-Chahun iron oxide-apatite deposit, Bafq district, Iran: insights from paragenesis and geochemistry. Chemical Geology, 281(3–4): 253–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2010.12.013

Bonyadi, Z. and Sadeghi, R., 2020. Hydrothermal alteration associated with magnetite mineralization in the Bafq iron deposits, Iran. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 189: 104152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2019.104152

Boynton, W.V., 1984. Cosmochemistry of the rare earth elements; meteorite studies. In: P. Henderson (Editor), Rare Earth Element Geochemistry, (Developments in Geochemistry). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 63–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-42148-7.50008-3

Callegari, E. and Pieri, R., 1967. Crystallographic observations on some chess-board albites. Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, 47(1): 99–110. Retrieved March 1, 2023 from https://www.e-periodica.ch/cntmng?pid=smp-001:1967:47::1257

Corriveau, L., Montreuil, J.F. and Potter, E.G., 2016. Alteration Facies Linkages Among Iron Oxide Copper-Gold, Iron Oxide-Apatite, and Affiliated Deposits in the Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Northwest Territories, Canada. Economic Geology, 111(8): 2045–2072. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.111.8.2045

Cuney, M., Emetz, A., Mercadier, J., Mykchaylov, V., Shunko, V. and Yuslenko, A., 2012. Uranium deposits associated with Na-metasomatism from Central Ukraine: a review of some of the major deposits and genetic constraints. Ore Geology Reviews, 44(4): 82–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2011.09.007

Cuney, M. and Kyser, K., 2008. Deposits related to Na-metamorphism and high-grade metamorphism. In: M. Cuney and K. Kyser (Editors), Recent and not-so-recent developments in uranium deposits and implications for exploration. Short Course Series, 39. Mineralogical Association of Canada, Québec, pp. 97–116. Retrieved January 14, 2023 from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=c1dd96a08bbd6b5292985c87580f40a759fbacfa

Daliran, F., 2002. Kiruna-type iron oxide-apatite ores and 'apatites' of the Bafq district, Iran, with an emphasis on the REE geochemistry of their apatites. In: T.M. Porter (Editor), Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper Gold and Related Deposits: A Global Perspective PGC Publishing, Adelaide, Australia, pp. 303–320. Retrieved January 14, 2023 from https://www.geokniga.org/bookfiles/geokniga-19bafq-district-irandaliran.pdf

Daliran, F., Stosch, H.G. and Williams, P., 2007. Multistage metasomatism and mineralization at hydrothermal Fe oxide-REE-apatite deposits and “apatitites” of the Bafq district, Central-East Iran. Proceedings of the 9th Biennial Meeting of the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits, Irish Association for Economic Geology, Dublin, Ireland. Retrieved January 14, 2023 from https://hero.epa.gov/hero/index.cfm/reference/details/reference_id/6888901

Daliran, F., Stosch, H.G. and Williams, P., 2010. Early Cambrian iron oxide-apatite-REE (U) deposits of the Bafq district, East-Central Iran. In: L. Corriveau and H. Mumin (Editors), Exploring for iron oxide copper-gold deposits: Canada and global analogues. Geologists Association, Canada, pp. 143–155. Retrieved May 06, 2018 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292809554_Early_Cambrian_iron_oxide-apatite-REE_U_deposits_of_the_Bafq_District_east-central_Iran

Dehghani firouzabadi, A.H., 2011. Geologycal prospecting plan of the Choghart deposite, scale 1:4200. Central Iron Ore Company. (in Persian)

Deymar, S., Yazdi, M., Rezvanianzadeh, M.R. and Behzadi, M., 2018. Alkali metasomatism as a process for Ti–REE–Y–U–Th mineralization in the Saghand Anomaly 5, Central Iran: insights from geochemical, mineralogical, and stable isotope data. Ore Geology Reviews, 93: 308–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.01.008

Enjvik, A.K., Taubald, H., Solli, A., Grenne, T., Austrheim., H., 2018. Dynamic Metasomatism: Stable Isotopes, Fluid Evolution, and Deformation of Albitite and Scapolite Metagabbro (Bamble Lithotectonic Domain, South Norway). Geofluids Special Issue: 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9325809

Fan, H.R., Groves, D.I., Mikucki, E.J. and McNaughton, N.J., 2000. Contrasting fluid types at the Nevoria gold deposit in the Southern cross greenstone belt, Western Australia: Implications of auriferous fluids depositing ores within and Archean banded iron-formation. Economic Geology, 95(7): 1527–1536.  https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.95.7.1527

Forster, H.J. and Borumandi, H., 1971. Jungpräkambrische Magnetit-Lava und Magnetit-Tuffe aus dem Zentral Iran. Naturwissenschaften, 58(10): 524–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00623323

Forster, H., Jafarzadeh, A., 1994. The Bafq mining district in central Iran-a highly mineralized Infracambrian volcanic field. Economic Geology, 89(8): 1697–1721. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.89.8.1697

Frietsch, R. and Perdahl, J.A., 1995. Rare earth elements in apatite and magnetite in kiruna-type iron ores and some other iron ore type. Ore Geology Reviews, 9(6): 489–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-1368(94)00015-G

Gaetani, G.A., 2004. The influence of melt structure on trace element partitioning near the peridotite solidus. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 147(5): 511–527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-004-0575-1

Gill, R., 2010. Igneous rocks and processes: A practical guide. John Wiley & Sons, New York, United States, 472 pp.

Giritharan, T.S. and Rajamani, V., 2001. REE geochemistry of ore zones in the Archean auriferous schist belts of the Eastern Dharwar Craton, South India. Journal of Earth System Science, 110(2): 143–159.  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02702214

Green, N.L., 2006. Influence of slab thermal structure on basalt source regions and melting conditions: REE and HFSE constraints from the Garibaldi volcanic belt, Northern Cascadia subduction system. Lithos, 87(1–2): 23–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2005.05.003

Haghipour, A. and Pelissier, G., 1977.Geological map of the Biabanak-Bafq area.Geological survey of Iran.

Harris, C., 1983. The petrology of lavas and associated plutonic of Ascension Island. Journal of Petrology, 24(4): 424–470. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/24.4.424

Heidarian, F., 2005. A Study on Mineralizaition U, REE and Related Processes in Anomaly No.6 Khoshomy Area Central Iran. Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 34: 47–52. Retrieved February 27, 2023 from https://jonsat.nstri.ir/article_717_3fb4ddc1ea53b26887ee3d96cf90d4fa.pdf?lang=en

Heidarian, H., Alirezaei, S. and Lentz, D., 2017. Chadormalu kiruna-type magnetite- apatite deposite, Bafq district, Iran: Insights in to hydrothermal alteration and petrogenesis from geochemical, fluid inclusion and sulfur isotope data. Ore Geology Reviews, 83: 43–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.11.031

Heidarian, H., Lentz, D., Alirezaei, S., McFarlane, C. and Peighambar, S., 2018. Multiple stage ore formation in the Chadormalu iron deposit, Bafq metallogenic province, Central Iran: evidence from BSE imaging and apatite EPMA and LA-ICP-MS U-Pb geochronology. Minerals, 8(3): 87–117. https://doi.org/10.3390/min8030087

Hosseini, K., Rajabzadeh, M.A., 2022. Origin of magnetite and apatite ores in the Esfordi magnetite-apatite ore deposit NE of Bafq, south Yazd: insights from mineralogy, geochemistry, microthermometry, O-H stable and U-Pb and Nd-Sm non-stable isotopes. Journal of Economic Geology, 14(4): 31–88 (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/econg.2022.76456.1045

Hosseini, K. and Shahpasandzadeh, M., 2021. Tectono-magmatic setting of the Albite-bearing metasomatite of the Ghoghart magnetite-apatite ore deposits, Bafq, Central Iran. Scientific Quqterly Journal of Sciences, 30(118): 81–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.22071/gsj.2020.215856.1744

Hosseini, K., Shahpasandzadeh, M. and Moradian Bafghi, M.H., 2022. Origin of Mineralizing Fluids in the Choghart Magnetite Apatite Deposit, NE of Bafq: Evidence from Mineralogy, Geochemistry, Microthermometry, Stable (O-H and O-C) and Unstable Isotopes (U-Pb and Nd-Sm). Journal of Economic Geology, 14(1): 109–155. (in Persian with English abstract). https://dx.doi.org/10.22067/ECONG.2021.67972.1004

Huang, S., Song, Y., Houb, Z. and Xue, C., 2016. Chemical and stable isotopic (B, H, and O) compositions of tourmaline in the Maocaoping vein-type Cu deposit, western Yunnan, China: constraints on fluid source and evolution. Chemical Geology, 439(6): 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.06.031

Jami, M., Dunlop, A.C. and Cohen, D.R., 2007. Fluid inclusion and stable isotope study of the Esfordi apatite-magnetite deposit, Central Iran. Economic Geology, 102(6): 111–128. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.102.6.1111

 Johnson, C.A. and Harlow, G.E., 1999. Guatemala jadeitites and albitites were formed by deuterium-rich serpentinizing fluids deep within a subduction zone. Geology, 27(7): 629–632. Retrieved January 14, 2023 from https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0629:GJAAWF>2.3.CO;2

Kerkhof, A.M.V., Alfons, M. and Hein, U.F., 2001. Fluid inclusion petrography. Lithos, 55(1–4): 27–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-4937(00)00037-2

Khoshnoodi, K., Behzadi, M., Gannadi-maragheh, M. and Yazdi, M., 2017. Alkali Metasomatism and Th-REE Mineralization in the Choghart deposit, Bafq district, Central Iran. Geologia Croatica, 70(1): 53–69.  https://doi.org/10.4154/gc.2017.03

Khoshnoodi, K., Yazdi, M., Ghannadi-Maragheh, M., Ziapour, S., Deymar, S., and Behzadi, M. 2022. Formation and evolution of Th–REE mineralizing fluids at the Kiruna-type Choghart iron oxide–apatite deposit, Central Iran: Insights from fluid inclusions and H-C-O isotopes. Geological Journal, 57(6): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4399

Küster, D. and Harms, U., 1998. Post-collisional potassic granitoids from the southern and northwestern parts of the Late Neoproterozoic East African Orogen: a review. Lithos, 45(1–4): 177–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-4937(98)00031-0

Majidi, S.A., Omrani, J., Troll, V.R., Weis, F.A., Houshmandzadeh, A., Ashouri, E. and Chung, S.L., 2021. Employing geochemistry and geochronology to unravel genesis and tectonic setting of iron oxide-apatite deposits of the Bafq-Saghand metallogenic belt, Central Iran. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 110(1): 127–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-020-01942-5‏

McCulloch, M.T. and Gamble, J.A., 1991. Geochemical and geodynamical constraints on subduction zone magmatism. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 102 (3–4): 358–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(91)90029-H

McLennan, M. and Taylor, B.E., 1979. Rare earth element mobility associ-ated with uranium mineralization. Nature, 282: 247–250. https://doi.org/10.1038/282247a0

Mehdipour Ghazi, J., Moazzen, M., Rahgoshay, M. and Wilde, S.A., 2020. Zircon U–Pb–Hf isotopes and whole rock geochemistry of magmatic rocks from the Posht-e-Badam Block: A key to tectonomagmatic evolution of Central Iran. Gondwana Research, 87: 162–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2020.06.010

Mirzababaei, G., Yazdi, M., Behzadi, M. and Rezvanianzadeh, M.R. 2021. REE-Th mineralization in the Se-Chahun magnetite-apatite ore deposit, central Iran: Interplay of magmatic and metasomatic processes. Ore Geology Reviews, 139‌(Part A): 104426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104426

Mohseni, S. and Aftabi, A., 2015. Structural, textural, geochemical and isotopic signatures of synglaciogenic Neoproterozoic banded iron formations (BIFs) at Bafq mining district (BMD), Central Iran: The possible Ediacaran missing link of BIFs in Tethyan metallogeny. Ore Geology Review, 71(7): 215–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.05.018

Mokhtari, M.A.A., Emami, M.H. and Hosseinzadeh, Gh., 2013. Genesis of iron-apatite ores in Posht-e-Badam Block (Central Iran) using REE geochemistry. Journal of Earth System Sciences, 122(3): 795–803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-013-0313-z

Moore, F. and Modabberi, S., 2003. Origin of Choghart iron oxide deposit, Bafq District, Central Iran: new isotopic and geochemical evidence. Journal of Sciences, Islamic Republic of Iran, 14 (3): 259–269. Retrieved June 27, 2021 from https://www.sid.ir/en/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=33257

Nayebi, N.D., Esmaeily, D.M., Chew, Lehmann, B. and Modabberia, S., 2021. Geochronological and geochemical evidence for multi-stage apatite in the Bafq iron metallogenic belt (Central Iran), with implications for the Chadormalu iron-apatite deposit. Ore Geology Review, 132(1–4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104054

NISCO, 1980. Result of Search and Valuation Works at Magnetic Anomalies of the Bafq Iron Ore Region during 1976–1979. Unpublished Report, National Iranian Steel Corporation, 260 pp.

Oliver, N.H.S., Cleverley, J.S., Mark, G., Pollard, P.J., Marshall, L.J., Rubenach, M.J., Williams, P.J. and Baker, T., 2004. Modeling the role of sodic alteration in the genesis of iron oxide-copper-gold deposits, Eastern Mount Isa block, Australia. Economic Geology, 99(6): 1145–1176. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/99.6.1145

Pearce, J.A. and Peate, D.W., 1995. Tectonic implications of the composition of volcanic arc magmas. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 23: 251–285. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.23.050195.001343

Pirajno, F., 2009. Hydrothermal processes and mineral systems. Springer, Berlin, 1250 pp.

Prokoph, A., Shields, G.A. and Veizer, J., 2008. Compilation and time-seriesanalysis of a marine carbonate δ18O, δ13C, 87Sr/86Sr and δ34S database through earth history. Earth- Science Reviews, 87(3–4): 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.12.003

Ramezani, J. and Tucker, R.D., 2003. The Saghand region, central Iran: U-Pb geochronology, petrogenesis andimplications for Gondwana tectonics. American Journal of Science, 303(7):622–665. https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.303.7.622

Richards, J.P., Spell, T., Rameh, E., Razique, A. and Fletcher, T., 2012. High Sr/Y Magmas Reflect Arc Maturity, High Magmatic Water Content, and Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au Potential: Examples from the Tethyan Arcs of Central and Eastern Iran and Western Pakistan. Economic Geology, 107(2): 295–332. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.107.2.295

Richmann, M.K., 2008. Letter to D. Reed (Subject: Eh/pH Diagrams for Am(III), Th(IV) and Np(V) Based on the FMT Database and Current PA Assumptions). 21 November 2008. U.S. Department of Energy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Carlsbad Operations, Carlsbad, NM.

Rimstidt, J.D., 1979. The kinetics of silica–water Reactions. Ph.D. Thesis, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States, 148 pp.

Rollinson, H.R., 1993. Using geochemical data: evaluation, presentation, interpretation. Longman Scientific and Technical, New York, 359 pp. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315845548

Ronchi, P., Masetti, D., Tassan, S. and Camocino, D., 2012. Hydrothermal dolomitization in platform and basin carbonate successions during thrusting: a hydrocarbon reservoir analogue (Mesozoic of Venetian Southern Alps, Italy). Marine and Petroleum Geology, 29(1): 68–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.09.004

Ruzicka, V., 1993. Vein uranium deposits. Ore Geology Review, 8(3–4): 247–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-1368(93)90019-U

Sadeghi, R., Mehrabi, B. and Bonyadi, Z., 2009. Role of Cambrian evaporitic fluids in geochemistry and genesis of Nord Anomaly iron ore deposit, North Bafq (Central Iran). Journal of Science (University of Tehran), 35(4): 155–166. Retrieved January 14, 2023 from https://journals.ut.ac.ir/article_21413_617f05dd131004d55eac8248d8e052df.pdf

Samani, B.A., 1988. Metallogeny of the Precambrian in Iran. Precambrian Research, 39(1–2): 85–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(88)90053-8

Schandl, E.S. and Gorton, M.P., 2004. A textural and geochemical guide to the identification of hydrothermal monazite: Criteria for selection of samples for dating epigenetic hydrothermal ore deposits. Economic Geology, 99(5): 1027–1035. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.99.5.1027

Sepidbar, F., Shafaii Moghadam, H., Li, C., Stern, R.J. Jiantang, P. and Vesali, Y., 2020. Cadomian Magmatic Rocks from Zarand (SE Iran) Formed in a Retro-Arc Basin. Lithos, 366–367:105569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2020.105569

Stosch, H.G., Romer, R.L., Daliran, F. and Rhede, D., 2011. Uranium–lead ages of apatite from iron oxide ores of the Bafq District, East-Central Iran. Mineralium Deposita, 46(1): 9–21. ‏https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-010-0309-4

Sun, S.S. and McDonough, W.F., 1989. Chemical and isotopic systematic of oceanic basalt: implication for mantle composition and processes. In: A.D. Saunders and M.J. Norry (Editors), Magmatism in the Ocean Basins. Journal of Geological Society, London, pp. 313-345. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1989.042.01.19

Taghipour, S., Kananian, A. and Khalili, M., 2013. Sodic- Calcic alteration in the host rocks of the Esfordi magnetite- apatite deposit. Iranian Journal of Petrology, 4(13): 67–80. (in Persian) Retrieved June 14, 2020 from https://www.sid.ir/fa/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=206317

Taylor, R.G., 1992. Ore textures: recognition and interpretation. Economic Geology Research Unit, Australia, 287 pp.

Tian, L., Castillo, P.R., Hawkins, J.W., Hilton, D.R., Hanan, B.H. and Pietruszka, A.J., 2008. Major and trace element and Sr-Nd isotope signatures of lavas from the centeral Lau Basin: Implications for the nature and influence of subduction components in the back-arc mantle. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 178(4): 657–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.06.039

Titayeva, N.A., 1994. Nuclear geochemistry. CRC Presses, Florida, United States, 304 pp. Retrieved March 1, 2023 from https://books.google.com/books?id=ptp6VMqh4xsC&pg=PA4&dq=nuclear+geochemistry.+crc+presses,&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiSusr277r9AhUxxAIHHXEiDrIQ6AF6BAgCEAI#v=onepage&q=nuclear%20geochemistry.%20crc%20presses%2C&f=false

Torab, F.M. and Lehmann, B., 2007. Magnetite-apatite deposits of the Bafq district. Central Iran: apatite geochemistry and monazite geochronology. Mineralogical magazine, 71(3): 347–363. https://doi.org/10.1180/minmag.2007.071.3.347

Tullis, J., Yund, R.A., 1985. Dynamic recrystallization of feldspar: a mechanism for ductile shear zone formation. Geology, 13(4): 238–241. Retrieved January 14, 2023 from https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1985)13<238:DROFAM>2.0.CO;2

Vesali, Y., Sepidbar, F., Palin, R.M. and Chiaradia, M., 2021. Crustal architecture studies in the Iranian Cadomian arc: Insights into source, timing and metallogeny. Ore Geology Reviews, 136: 104280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104280

Walter, L.P., 2011. Economic Geology: Principles and Practice. John Wiley & Sons, New York, United States, 688 pp.

Whitney, D.L. and Evans, B.W., 2010. Abbreviations for names of rock- forming minerals. American Mineralogist, 95(1): 185–187. https://doi.org/10.2138/am.2010.3371

 Wilde, A., 2013. Towards a model for albitite type uranium. Minerals, 3(1): 36–48. https://doi.org/10.3390/min3010036

Williams-Jones, A.E., 2015. The hydrothermal mobility of the rare earth elements. British Columbia Geological Survey, 3: 119–123. Retrieved March 1, 2023 from https://cmscontent.nrs.gov.bc.ca/geoscience/publicationcatalogue/Paper/BCGS_P2015-03-14_WilliamsJones.pdf

Williams-Jones, A.E., Schrijver, K., Doig, R. and Sangster, D.F., 1992. A model for epigenetic Ba-Pb-Zn mineralization in the Appalachian Trust Belt Quebec: Evidence from fluid inclusions and isotopes. Economic Geology, 87(1): 154–174. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.87.1.154

Wilson, B.M., 1989. Igneous petrogenesis a global tectonic approach. Springer Science and Business Media, London, 466 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6788-4

Witford, D.J., Korsch, M.J., Porritt, P.M. and Craven, S.J., 1988. Rare earth elemnt mobility around the volcanogenic polymetallic massive sulfide deposit at Que river, Tasmania, Australia. Chemical Geology, 68(1–2): 105–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(88)90090-3

Wood, S.A. 1990a. The aqueous geochemistry of rare earth elements and yttrium: 1. Review of available low-temperature data for inorganic complexes and the inorganic speciation of natural waters. Chemical Geology, 82: 159–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(90)90080-Q

Wood, S.A. 1990b. The aqueous geochemistry of rare earth elements and yttrium: 2. Theoretical predictions of speciation in hydrothermal solutions to 350^ºC at saturation water vapor pressure. Chemical Geology, 88(1–2): 99–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(90)90106-H

Wu, F., Jahn, B., Wildec, S.A., Lod, C.H., Yuie, T.F., Lina, Q., Gea, W. and Suna, D., 2003. Highly fractionated I-type granites in NE China II: isotopic geochemistry and implications for crustal growth in the Phanerozoic. Lithos, 67(3–4): 191–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-4937(03)00015-X

Yoshida, T., Okamura, S., Sakamoto, I., Ikeda, Y., Adachi, Y., Kojima, M., Sugawara, M. and Shitahaku, R., 2013. Petrology of felsic rocks dredged from the Myojin Seamount and the Myojin Rift in the north Izu-Bonin arc- Contribution of intra-oceanic subduction system to making continental middle crust. Meeting of International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, IAVCEI Scientific Assembly Kagoshima, Kagoshima, Japan. Retrieved January 14, 2023 from http://www.kazan-g.sakura.ne.jp/iavcei2013/iavcei_hp/PDF/4W_1B-P4.pdf

Zahedi, A. and Hosseini, K., 2014. Petrology and geochemistry of radioactive rocks in the East and South East Choghart deposite-Yazd. National Conference on Applied Research in Economic and Engineering Geology, Ahar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran.

Zhang, H., Zhang, L., Harris, N., Jin, L. and Honglin, Y., 2006. U-Pb zircon ages, geochemical and isotopic compositions of granitoids in Songpan- Garze fold belt, eastern Tibetan Plateau: constraints on petrogenesis and tectonic evolution of the basement. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 152(1): 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-006-0095-2

Zhao, F., 2005. Alkali-metasomatism and uranium mineralization. In: J. Mao and F.P. Bierlein (Editors), Mineral Deposit Research: Meeting the Global Challenge. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 343-346. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27946-6_91

Ziapour, S., Esmaeily, D., Khoshnoodi, Kh., Niroomand, Sh. and Simon, A.C., 2021. Mineralogy, geochemistry, and genesis of the Chahgaz (XIVA Anomaly) Kiruna-type iron oxide-apatite (IOA) deposit, Bafq district, Central Iran. Ore Geology Reviews, 128:103924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103924