The role of right-lateral shear zone and folding-related fractures in development of Zarshuran gold deposit, Takht-e-Soleyman complex, northern Takab

زمین شناسی اقتصادی

Article 1, Volume 12, Issue 2 - Serial Number 25, 2020, Pages 131-155   

Document Type: Research Article

DOI: 10.22067/econg.v12i2.75702

Authors

Reza Alipoor^* ; Ebrahim Tale Fazel; Mahdi Farhani Moghadam

Bu-Ali Sina University

Abstract

Introduction
The Zarshuran gold deposit is located in the Takht-e-Soleyman complex, NW Iran. It is formed in the Iman Khan NW-trending anticline (Mehrabi et al., 1999; Samimi, 1992). The rock units at Zarshuran mainly consist of Precambrian sequence (Iman Khan schist, Chaldaq limestone and Zarshuran black shale) which are overlain by Cambro-Ordovician limestone and Oligo-Miocene formations. Gold mineralization in the Zarshuran area occurs associated with jasperoid alteration within the Zarshuran black shale and Chaldaq carbonate rocks (Bazdar et al., 2015). The deposition and transportation of mineralized fluids from buried igneous rocks, faulting and fractures in basement and covered units, physico-chemical exchange in site of deposition, and hydrothermal alterations are the most important controls on gold mineralization at Zarshuran. There is a structural control on mineralization and ore deposition with respect to the alignment of gold mineralization along the NW- and NE-trending faults at Zarshuran. The mechanism of deformation in the studied area has been controlled by two sets of main fault systems. The early system is the NW-trending steeply-dipping right-lateral strike-slip faults with a reverse component and the late systems are the NE-trending faults that have been displaced by the early system. In this study, the relationship between fractures and structural lineaments with gold mineralization in the Zarshuran gold deposit was studied by remote sensing methods and fractal analysis. Then, development of extension and compressive structures of the Imam Khananticline in the right-lateral shear zone and role of fractures related folding in mineralization were investigated. It revealed that the spatial distribution of the fractures systems in folding structures is related to the kinematic evolution and geometry of folding.
 
Material and methods
Relations between mineralization and fracture systems are interpreted using field observations, extraction of lineaments and fractal analysis in this study. The lineaments map of the study area were extracted using appropriate algorithms of spatial data (STA algorithm), using Landsat 8 satellite (ETM+ sensor) images by semi-automatic method. Also, fractal dimensions in six parts of the area were calculated for faults and structural lineaments using the square method, log-log charts and related fractal analysis. A total of 75 samples were collected from trenches and surface outcrops. Then, analysis was performed for measurement of base and precious metal assays by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) in the Kanpazhuh laboratory (Tehran, Iran). Geochemical anomalies were reported by field observations and geological maps, and the extension and compressive structures associated to right-lateral shear zones were studied after determining the areas with high fractures density. Then, the relations between mineralization and transverse and longitudinal fractures related to folding in the Iman Khan anticline are investigated and a schematic model of the ore formation related to the folded structure are presented.
 
Results and discussion
The study area is first divided into six parts (a to f) in order to calculate the fractal dimensions of the lineaments and faults. The most frequent trends of the lineaments and faults is at about N20E to N75E and N30E to N85E, respectively. In order to study the relation between fractal dimensions of faults and lineaments with the distribution of gold in study area, the fault and lineament maps are somehow combined with the gold distribution map. In parts of the study area where the fractal dimensions of faults and lineaments show high values, gold concentration is also high. This indicates a structural relationship between the density of lineaments and faults of the study area with distribution of gold mineralization. The most important fault structure affecting the study area is the Takab fault zone with NNW-SSE trend and a length of about 80 km. The Takab fault zone and its related fractures play a major role in transport of hydrothermal fluids, and the biometric data show that these activities have continued from Miocene to date (Mehrabi et al., 1999; Daliran, 2008). The right-lateral strike-slip movement of the Takab fault has led to displacement of the rock units in study area. Also, this right-lateral movements caused formation of fractures with different trends and compressive and extensional structures as folding, reverse faulting and normal fractures. The Iman Khan anticline hosting the Zarshuran gold deposit is one of the main structures related to the Takab fault movement. The fractures related to this folded structure have played an important role in transporting the hydrothermal fluids. The fracture systems related to the Iman Khan anticline, is generally of longitudinal and transverse type. Therefore, after the slab break-off event and formation of a compressive structure due to the strike-slip movement of the Takab fault, the faults served as pathways to the ore-forming fluids. All evidences shows that the longitudinal fractures have an important role in the mineralization along the Iman Khan anticline, although the thickness of the mineralized zone increases at the intersection of longitudinal and transverse fractures.
 
References
Bazdar, H., Fattahi, H. and Ghadimi, F., 2015. Hybrid ANN with Invasive Weed Optimization Algorithm, a New Technique for Prediction of Gold and Silver in Zarshuran Gold Deposit, Iran. Journal of Tethys, 3‌)3(: 273–286.
Daliran, F., 2008. The carbonate rock-hosted epithermal gold deposit of Agdarreh, Takab geothermal field, NW Iran hydrothermal alteration and mineralization. Mineralium Deposita, 43‌(4): 383–404.
Mehrabi, B., Yardley, B.W.D. and Cann, J.R., 1999. Sediment-hosted disseminated gold mineralization at Zarshuran, NW Iran. Mineralium Deposita, 34‌(7): 673–696.
Samimi, M., 1992. Recognisance and preliminary exploration in the Zarshuran. Kavoshgaran Consulting Engineers Company, Tehran, 220 pp. (in Persian)

Keywords

Ore deposit; Anticline; Fractal; gold; Takab fault; Zarshuran

References

Adib, A., Mirzaei, S.I., Shoaei, G. and Afzal, P., 2017. Determination of a Conceptual Model for the Structural Features and Pb-Zn Mineralization in the North of Behabad Fault Zone, Central Iran. Iranian Journal of Earth Sciences, 9‌(2): 168–183.

Afzal, P., Dadashzadeh, A.H., Rashidnejad, O.N. and Aliyari, F., 2013. Delineation of gold mineralized zones using concentration-volume fractal model in Qolqoleh gold deposit, NW Iran. Ore Geology Reviews, 55(6): 125–133.

Afzal, P., Fadakar, Y.A., Moarefvand, P., Rashidnejad, O.N. and Asadi, H.H., 2012. Application of power-spectrum-volume fractal method for detecting hypogene, supergene enrichment, leached and barren zones in Kahang Cu porphyry deposit, Central Iran. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 112(1): 131–138.

Alavi, M., 2004. Regional stratigraphy of the Zagros Fold-Thrust belt of Iran and its proforelenad evolution. American Journal of Science, 304(1): 1–20.

Alavi, M. and Amini, M., 1976. Geological Quadrangle map of Iran, 1:250,000 scale, sheet C4 (Takab), Geological Survey of Iran.

Alipoor, R., Zare, M. and Ghassemi, M.R., 2012. Inception of activity and slip rate on the Main Recent Fault of Zagros Mountains, Iran. Geomorphology, 175–176(22): 86–97.

Allen, M.B., Kheirkhah, M., Emami, M.H. and Stuart, J.J., 2011. Right-lateral shear across Iran and kinematic change in the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone. Geophysical Journal International, 184(2): 555–574.

Arthur, M.A. and Sageman, B.B., 1994. Marine black shales: Depositional mechanisms and environments of ancient deposits. Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 22(1): 499–551.

Asadi, H.H., Voncken, J.H.L., Kühnel, R.A. and Hale, M., 2000. Petrography, mineralogy and geochemistry of the Zarshuran Carlin-like gold deposit, northwest Iran. Mineralium Deposita, 35(7): 656–671.

Awdal, A.H., Braathen, A., Wennberg, O.P. and Sherwani, G.H., 2013. The characteristics of fracture networks in the Shiranish formation of the Bina Bawi Anticline; comparison with the Taq Taq field, zagros, Kurdistan, NE Iraq. Petroleum Geoscience, 19(2): 139–155.

Babakhani, A and Ghalamghash, J., 1998. Geological map of Takht-e-Soleyman, scale 1:100,000. Geological Survey of Iran.

Barbier, M., Hamon, Y., Callot, J., Floquet, M. and Daniel, J., 2012. Sedimentary and diagenetic controls on the multiscale fracturing pattern of a carbonate reservoir: The Madison Formation (Sheep Mountain, Wyoming, USA). Marine and Petroleum Geology, 29(1): 50–67.

Bazdar, H., Fattahi, H. and Ghadimi, F., 2015. Hybrid ANN with Invasive Weed Optimization Algorithm, a New Technique for Prediction of Gold and Silver in Zarshuran Gold Deposit, Iran. Journal of Tethys, 3‌)3(: 273–286.

Berberian, M. and King, G.C.P., 1981. Towards a paleogeography and tectonic evolution of Iran. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 18‌(2): 210–265.

Biralvand, M., Mohajjel, M. and Ghassemi, R., 2017. Thick-skinned dextral transpression in Takab complex, NW Iran. Scientific Quarterly Journal, GEOSCIENCES, 26‌(102): 27–38. (in Persian with English abstract)

Carranza, E.J.M., 2009. Controls on mineral deposit occurrence inferred from analysis of their spatial pattern and spatial association with geological features. Ore Geology Reviews, 35(3–4): 383–400.

Carranza, E.J.M., Wibowo, H., Barritt, S.D. and Sumintadireja, P., 2008. Spatial data analysis and integration for regional-scale geothermal potential mapping, West Java, Indonesia. Geothermics, 37(3): 267–299.

Carlson, C.A., 1991. Spatial distribution of ore deposits. Geology, 19(2): 111–114.

Cheng, Q. and Agterberg, F.P., 1995. Multifractal modeling and spatial point processes. Mathematical Geology, 27(7): 831–845.

Cheng, Q., Agterberg, F.P., Bonham-Carter, G.F., 1996. Fractal pattern integration for mineral potential estimation. Nonrenewable Resource, 5(2): 117–130.

Cline, J.S., Hofstra, A.H., Muntean, J.L., Tosdal, R.M. and Hickey, K.A., 2005. Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada: Critical geologic characteristics and viable models. In: J.W. Hedenquist, J.F.H. Thompson, R.J. Goldfarb and J.P. Richards (Editors), Economic Geology 100th anniversary volume. Society of Economic Geologist, Littleton, CO, pp. 451–484.

Corbett, K., Friedman, M. and Spang, J., 1987. Fracture development and mechanical stratigraphy of Austin Chalk, Texas. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 71‌(1): 17–28.

Cox, S.F., 1999. Deformational controls on the dynamics of fluid flow in mesothermal gold systems. In: K.J.W., McCaffey, L. Lonergan and J.J. Wilkinson, (Editors), Fractures, fluid flow and mineralization. Geological Society of London Publications, Special Publications 155, London, pp. 123–140.

Crocket, J.H., 1991. Distribution of gold in the Earth’s crust. In: R.P. Foster (Editor), Gold metallogeny and exploration. Springer, Boston, pp. 1–36.

Daliran, F., 2008. The carbonate rock-hosted epithermal gold deposit of Agdarreh, Takab geothermal field, NW Iran hydrothermal alteration and mineralization. Mineralium Deposita, 43(4): 383–404.

Faccenna, C., Be llier, O., Mar tinod, J., Piromallo, C. and Regard, V., 2006. Slab detachment beneath eastern Anatolia: a possible cause for the formation of the North Anatolian fault. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 242(1): 85–97.

Ferrill, D.A. and Morris, A.P., 2008. Fault zone deformation controlled by carbonate mechanical stratigraphy Balcones fault system, Texas. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 92(3): 359–380.

Fossen, H, 2010. Structural geology. Cambridge University Press, New York, 481 pp.

Ghorbani, M., 2000. Magmatism and metalogeny of Taka area. Ph.D. Thesis, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran, pp. 224. (in Persian with English abstract)

Hafkenscheid, E., Wortel, M. and Spakman, W., 2006. Subduction history of the Tethyan region derived from seismic tomography and tectonic reconstructions. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111(8): 1–24.

Hajialioghli, R. and Moazzen, M., 2013. Precambrian crustal basement rocks in Iran new evidence from the Takht-e-Soleyman metamorphic complex from NW Takab. Scientific Quarterly Journal, GEOSCIENCES, 22(88): 197–204. (in Persian with English abstract)

Hajialioghli, R., Moazzen, M., Droop, G.T.R., Oberhänsli, R., Bousquet, R., Jahangiri, A. and Ziemann, M., 2007. Serpentine polymorphs and P-T evolution of metaperidotites and serpentinites in the Takab area, NW Iran. Mineralogical Magazine, 71(2): 203–222.

Hanks, C.L., Lorenz, J., Teufel, L. and Krumhardt, A.P., 1997. Lithologic and structural controls on natural fracture distribution and behavior within Lisburne Group, Northeastern Brooks Range and North Slope Subsurface, Alaska. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 81(10): 1700–1720.

Hashim, M., Ahmad, S., Md Johari, M.A. and Beiravand Pour, A., 2013. Automatic lineament extraction in a heavily vegetated region using Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) imagery. Advances in Space Research, 51(5): 874–890.

Hobbs, D.W., 1967. The formation of tension joints in sedimentary rocks: an explanation. Geological Magazine, 104(6): 550–556.

Hofstra, A., Emsbo, P., Christiansen, W., Theodorakos, P., Zhang, X.C., Hu, R.Z., Su, W.C. and Fu, S.H., 2005. Source of ore fluids in Carlin-type gold deposits, China: Implications for genetic models. In: J. Mao and F.P. Bierlein (Editors), Mineral Deposit Research: Meeting the Global Challenge. Springer, Berlin, pp. 533–536.

Hosseinjani Zadeh, M. and Honarmand, M., 2018. Remote sensing and Aeromagnetic investigations in porphyry copper deposits for identification of areas with high concentration of gold: a case study from the central part of Dehaj-Sarduiyeh belt, Kerman, Iran. Journal of Economic Geology, 10)1 :(237–254. (in Persian with English abstract)

Hugman, R.H.H. and Friedman, M., 1979. Effects of texture and composition on mechanical behavior of experimentally deformed carbonate rocks. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 63‌(9): 1478–1489.

Jahangiri, A., 2007. Post-collisional Miocene adakitic volcanism in NW Iran: geochemical and geodynamic implications. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 30‌(3): 433–447.

Jamison, W.R., 1997. Quantitative evaluation of fractures on Monkshood anticline, a detachment fold in the Foothills of Western Canada. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 81‌(7): 1110–1132.

Kashkoei Jahroomi, M. and Qishlaqi, A., 2016. A new approach for hydrothermal alteration mapping by selecting and interpreting principal components in Landsat ETM+ images. Journal of Economic Geology, 8(1): 181–199. (in Persian with English abstract)

Kavoshgaran Consulting Engineers Co., 2013. Prospecting and preliminary exploration in near zarshuran gold mine. Ministry of Mines and Metals, Republic Islamic of Iran (unpublished), 500 pp. (in Persian)

Keskin, M., 2003. Magma generation by slab steepening and break off beneath a subduction accretion complex: an alternative model for collision related volcanism in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(24): 1–9.

Kesler, S.E., Riciputi, L.C. and Ye, Z., 2005. Evidence for a magmatic origin for Carlin-type gold deposits: isotopic composition of sulfur in the Betze-Post-Screamer Deposit, Nevada, USA. Mineralium Deposita, 40(2): 127–136.

Ketris, M.P. and Yudovitch, Y.E., 2009. Estimations of Clarkes for Carbonaceous bioliths: World averages for trace element contents in black shales and coals. International Journal of Coal Geology, 78(2): 135–148.

Koike, K., Nagano, S. and Kawaba, K., 1998. Constraction and analysis of interpreted fracture plans through combination of satellite image derived lineaments and digital elevation model date. Computers & Geosciences, 24(1): 573–583.

Large, R.R., Bull, S.W. and Maslennikov, V.V., 2011. A carbonaceous sedimentary source rock model for Carlin-type and orogenic gold deposits. Economic Geology, 106(3): 331–358.

Madrid, R.J. and Garwin, S.L., 2002. Structural methods for targeting gold deposits, northern Carlin trend, Nevada. In: C.P. Swager, B. Stone and S. Reddy (Editors), Applied Structural Geology for Mineral Exploration and Mining. Australian Institute of Geoscientists, Kalgoolie, pp. 118–121.

Mandelbort, B.B., 1982. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. Freeman, New York, 460 pp.

Masoud, A. and Koike, K., 2006. Tectonic architecture through Landsat-7 ETM+/SRTM DEM-derived lineaments and relationship to the hydrogeologic setting in Siwa region, NW Egypt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 45(4-5): 467–477.

McLellan, J.G., 2004. Fluid flow in extensional environments; numerical modelling with an application to Hamersley iron ores. Journal of Structural Geology, 26(6–7): 1157–1171.

Mehrabi, B., Yardley, B.W.D. and Cann, J.R., 1999. Sediment-hosted disseminated gold mineralization at Zarshuran, NW Iran. Mineralium Deposita, 34(7): 673–696.

Mirzaie, A., Shafiei, B.S. and Derakhshani, R., 2015. Fault control on Cu mineralization in the Kerman porphyry copper belt, SE Iran: A fractal analysis. Ore Geology Reviews, 71(11): 237–247.

Muntean, J.L., Cline, J.S., Simon, A.C. and Longo, A.A., 2011. Magmatic-hydrothermal origin of Nevada's Carlin-type gold deposits. Nature Geoscience, 4(2): 122–127.

Muto, J., Nakatani, T., Nishikawa, O. and Nagahama, H., 2015. Fractal particle size distribution of pulverized fault rocks as a function of distance from the fault core. Geophysical Research Letters, 42(10): 3811–3819.

Nadimi, A., 2007. Evolution of the Central Iranian basement. Gondwana Research, 12(3): 324–323.

Nouri, R., Afzal, P., Arian, M., Jafari, M. and Feizi, F., 2013. Reconnaissance of copper and gold mineralization using analytical hierarchy process (AHP) in the Rudbar 1:100,000 map sheet, northwest Iran. Journal of Mining and Metallurgy, Section A: Mining, 49(1): 9–19.

Ojaghi, B., 1996. Economic Geology and Investigation of the Form of the Zarshuran Gold Deposit (North Takab). M.Sc. Thesis, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran, 264 pp. (in Persian with English abstract)

Oliver, N.H.S., Pearson, P.J., Holcomb, R.J. and Ord, A., 1999. Mary Kathleen metamorphic hydrothermal uranium rare-earth element deposit: ore genesis and numerical model of coupled deformation and fluid flow. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 46(3):467–484.

Omrani, J., Agard, P., Whitechurch, H., Benoit, M., Prouteau, G. and Jolivet, L., 2008. Arc-magmatism and subduction history beneath the Zagros Mountains, Iran: a new report of adakites and geodynamic consequences. Lithos, 106(3–4): 380–398.

Orris, G.J., Dunlap, P. and Wallis, C.J., 2015. Phosphate Occurrence and Potential in the Region of Afghanistan, Including Parts of China, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. United States Geological Survey, Virginia, 70 pp.

Ortega, O.J., Gale, J.F.W. and Marrett, R., 2010. Quantifying diagenetic and stratigraphic controls on fracture intensity in platform carbonates: an example from the Sierra Madre Oriental, northeast Mexico. J. Struct. Journal of Structural Geology, 32(12): 1943–1959.

Philip, G., 1996. Landsat Thematic Mapper data analysis for Quaternary tectonics in parts of the Doon Valley, NW Himalaya, India. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 17 (1): 143-153.

Pinar, A., Kuge, K. and Honkura, Y., 2003. Moment tensor inversion of recent small to moderate sized earthquakes: implications for seismic hazard and active tectonics beneath the Sea of Marmara. Geophysical Journal International, 153(1): 133–145.

Pirajno, F., 2009. Hydrothermal Processes and Mineral Systems. Springer, Netherlands, 1250 pp.

Price, N.J., 1966. Fault and Joint Development in Brittle and Semi-brittle Rocks. Elsevier, London, 186 pp.

Rahmati, A., Afzal, P., Abrishamifar, S.A. and Sadeghi, B., 2014. Application of concentration-number and concentration–volume fractal models to delineate mineralized zones in the Sheytoor iron deposit, Central Iran. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 8(5): 2953–2965.

Raines, G.L., 2008. Are fractal dimensions of the spatial distribution of mineral deposits meaningful? Natural Resources Research, 17(2): 87–97.

Ramezani, J. and Tucker, R.D., 2003. The Saghand region, central Iran: U-Pb geochronology petrogenesis and implications for Gondwana tectonics. American Journal of Science, 303(7): 622–665.

Ramsay, J.G., 1967. Folding and Fracturing of Rocks. McGraw-Hill, New York, 568 pp.

Reich, M., Kesler, S.E., Utsunomiya, S., Palenik, C.S., Chryssoulis, S.L. and Ewing, R., 2005. Solubility of gold in arsenian pyrite. Geochemica et Cosmochimica Acta, 69(11): 2781–2796.

Robert, F. and Poulsen, K.H., 2001. Vein formation and deformation in greenstone gold deposits. In: J.P. Richards and R.M. Tosdal (Editors), Structural controls on ore genesis. Society of Economic Geologists, Denver, pp. 111–155.

Rowen, L.C. and Bowers, T.L., 1995. Analysis of linear features mapped in Landsat Thematic Mapper and Side-Looking Airborne Radar images of the Reno 1o by 2o Quadrangle, Nevada and California, Implications for mineral resource studies. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 61(6): 749–759.

Saki, A., 2010. Proto-Tethyan remnants in northwest Iran: Geochemistry of the gneisses and metapelitic rocks. Gondwana Research, 17(4): 704–714.

Samimi, M., 1992. Recognisance and preliminary exploration in the Zarshuran. Kavoshgaran Consulting Engineers Company, Tehran, 220 pp. (in Persian)

Shafaii Moghadam, H., Li, X.H., Stern, R.J., Ghorbani, G. and Bakhshizad, F., 2015. Zircon U-Pb ages and Hf-O isotopic composition of migmatites from the Zanjan-Takabcomplex, NWIran: Constraints on partial melting of metasediments. Lithos, 240–243(1): 34–48.

Sibson, R.H., 1996. Structural permeability of fluid-driven fault-fracture meshes. Journal of Structural Geology, 18(8): 1031–1042.

Solomon, S. and Ghebreab, G., 2006. Lineament characterization and their tectonic significance using Landsat TM data and field studies in the central highlands of Eritrea. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 46(4): 371–378.

Taylor, S.R. and McLennan, S.M., 1995. The geochemical evolution of the continental crust. Reviews of Geophysics, 33(2): 241–265.

Tripp, G.I. and Vearncombe J.R., 2004. Fault/fracture density and mineralization: a contouring method for targeting in gold exploration. Journal of Structural Geology, 26(6–7): 1087–1108.

Wang, W., Zhao, J., Cheng, Q. and Liu, J. 2012. Tectonic-geochemical exploration modeling for characterizing geo-anomalies in southeastern Yunnan district, China. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 122(9): 71–80.

Wei, S. and Pengda, Z., 2002. Theoretical study of statistical fractal model with applications to mineral resource prediction. Computers and Geosciences, 28(3): 369–376.

Whitney, D. and Evans, B.W., 2010. Abbreviations for names of rock-forming minerals. American Mineralogist, 95(1): 185–187.

Zhao, J., Chen, S. and Zuo, R., 2015. Identifying geochemical anomalies associated with Au-Cu mineralization using multifractal and artificial neural network models in the Ningqiang district, Shaanxi, China. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 164(5): 54–64.

Zuo, R., Cheng, Q. and Xia, Q., 2009. Application of fractal models to characterization of vertical

distribution of geochemical element concentration. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 102(1): 37–43.