بررسی تأثیر پدیدۀ فرسایش زبان‌ خارجی بر مهارت گفتاری زبان‌آموزان ایرانی

مطالعات زبان و ترجمه

مقاله 14، دوره 55، شماره 2، تیر 1401، صفحه 103-133   

نوع مقاله: مقالۀ پژوهشی

شناسه دیجیتال (DOI): 10.22067/jlts.2021.40547

نویسندگان

علی رئیسی¹؛ منوچهر جعفری گوهر^{* 2}؛ بهزاد قنسولی³؛ امیر رضا نعمت تبریزی²

¹گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران

²گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران

³گروه زبان انگلیسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران

چکیده

پدیدۀ فرسایش زبانی به‌عنوان مانع مهمی در روند یادگیری زبان، به مفهوم فراموشی و اُفت مهارت­‌های زبانی بوده که براثر نبود تماس زبانی و یا دوری از محیط­‌های آموزشی به وجود می‌­آید. در مهارت­‌های تولیدی، جنبه­‌های متفاوتی ازجمله میزان دقّت، روانی و پیچیدگی مورد هدف این پدیده قرار می­‌گیرند. این مقاله به بررسی تأثیر فرسایش زبان خارجی بر میزان دقّت، روانی و پیچیدگی مهارت گفتاری زبان‌آموزان ایرانی می‌پردازد. به این منظور، در پژوهش حاضر 37 نفر از فراگیران زن و مرد زبان انگلیسی در بازۀ سنی 18 تا 35 سال و با سطح مهارت گفتاری متوسط و پیشرفته بر اساس روش «نمونه­‌گیری در دسترس» انتخاب شدند. همچنین جهت ارزیابی توانایی صحبت کردن شرکت‌­کنندگان، از آزمون آزمایشی «آیلتس» در قالب موضوعات مختلف در چهار مرحلۀ پژوهش و در طیّ یک دورۀ نُه‌ماهه (در ابتدای مطالعه، سه ماه، شش ماه و نه ماه پس از قطع فرایند یادگیری زبان) استفاده شد. برای پاسخ به سؤالات تحقیق، از آزمون «ANOVA» با مدل اندازه­‌گیری مکرّر استفاده شد. نتایج تحقیق نشان داد فرسایش، تأثیر قابل ­توجّهی بر متغیر پیچیدگی دارد. همچنین از نظر دقّت زبانی نیز اختلاف معنی‌­داری در هر چهار مرحلۀ مطالعه مشاهده گردید. به‌طور مشابه، در ارتباط با متغیر روانی کلامی، نتایج حکایت از تأثیر قابل توجّه فرسایش بر این جنبه از گفتار دارد. افزون بر این، نتایج مربوط به‌ اندازۀ اثر نشان می‌دهد که فرسایش، بیشترین تأثیر را بر روانی و کم‌ترین تأثیر را بر دقّت گفتار دارد. درمجموع، نتایج نشانگر آسیب­‌پذیری قابل توجّه کلّیۀ جنبه­‌های مهارت صحبت کردن در مقابل فرسایش زبانی است.

کلیدواژه‌ها

فرسایش زبان خارجی؛ مهارت صحبت کردن؛ دقت؛ روانی؛ پیچیدگی

مراجع

زارعی، غ.، بابایی، ا. ع.، و سیدی­نوقابی، س. ر. (1392). هویت­سازی و یادگیری زبان انگلیسی: مطالعۀ موردی فراگیران زبان انگلیسی. مطالعات زبان و ترجمه، 46(2)، 31-51.

شکیبایی، گ.، و جمشیدف، پ. (1401). تبیین کارآمدی و یادگیری آزمون بین‌المللی آیلتس آکادمیک در 22 کشور آسیایی به منظور ارائه مدل تعاملی. مطالعات زبان و ترجمه، 55(1)، 144-176. 

کارگزاری، ح. ر.، سلیمانی، ح.، جعفری­گهر، م.، و همتی، ف. (1394). مقایسۀ تأثیر دو نوع برنامه­ریزی بر عملکرد نوشتاری زبان­آموزان ایرانی از حیث روانی، دقّت و پیچیدگی نوشتار. مطالعات زبان و ترجمه، 48(4)، 117-132.

 

Abbasian, R., & Khajavi, Y. (2011). Lexical attrition of general and special English words after years of non-exposure: The case of Iranian teachers. English Language Teaching, 3(3), 47-53.

Andersen, R. W. (1982). Determining the linguistic attributes of language attrition. In R. D. Lambert, & B. Freed (Eds.), The loss of language skills (pp. 83-118). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Argyri, E., & Sorace, A. (2007). Cross-linguistic influence and language dominance in older bilingual children, Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(1), 79–99.

Asgari, A., & Mustapha, G. B. (2012). The attrition rate of vocabulary among EFL learners across different proficiency levels. Pertanika Journal of Social Science & Humanities, 20(1), 43-54.

Baker, J., & Westrup, H. (2003). Essential speaking skills: A handbook for English language teachers. London, England: Continuum.

Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Stringer, D. (2010). Variables in second language attrition: Advancing the state of the art. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 32(1), 1-45.

Bueno, A., Madrid, D., & McLaren, N. (2006). TEFL in secondary education. Granada, Spain: Editorial Universidad de Granada.

Celce-Murcia, M. (2003). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E (2001). Discourse analysis and language teaching. In D. Schiffrin (Ed.), The handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 707-724). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E. (2000). Discourse and context in language teaching: A guide for language teachers. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Cohen, A. D. (1986). Forgetting foreign language vocabulary. In B. Weltens, K. de Bot & T. Van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress (pp. 143-158). Dordrecht, the Netehrlands: Foris.

Cohen, A. D. (1989). Attrition in the productive lexicon of two Portuguese third language speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11(2), 135 – 149.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Davatgari Asl, H., & Firouzi, M. (2017). Investigating the rate of foreign language attrition: The case of grammar. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 4(5), 242-253.

Davies, P., & Pearse, E. (2000). Success in English teaching. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Ebbinghaun, H. (1885). Über das gedächtnis. Untersuchungen zur experimentellen psychologie [About the memory. Studies in experimental psychology]. Leipzig, Germany: Duncker & Humblot.

Ecke, P. (2004). Language attrition and theories of forgetting: A cross-disciplinary review. International Journal of Bilingualism, 8(3), 321-354.

Edwards, G. (1976). Second-language retention in the Canadian public services. Canadian Modern Language Review, 32(3), 305-308.

Ellis, R., & Barkhuizen, G. (2005). Analysing learner language. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Foster, P., Tonkyn, A., & Wiggleworth, G. (2000). Measuring spoken language: A unit for all reasons. Applied Linguistics, 21(3), 354–75.

Gharibi, K. (2016). Incomplete acquisition, attrition, and maintenance of heritage speakers’ family language: Iranians in New Zealand. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.

Glass, G., Wilson, V., & Gottman, J. (2008). Design and analysis of time-series experiments. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Gürel, A. (2004). Selectivity in L2-induced L1 attrition: A psycholinguistic account. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 17(1), 53-78.

Hakuta, K., & D'Andrea, D. (1992). Some properties of bilingual maintenance and loss in Mexican background students. Applied Linguistics, 13(1), 72-99.

Hansen, L. (2001). Language attrition: The fate of the start. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21(1), 60-73.

Hansen, L. (2011). The acquisition, attrition, and relearning of mission vocabulary. In M. S. Schmid, & W. Lowie (Eds.), Modeling bilingualism: From structure to chaos (pp. 115- 134). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins.

Hansen, L., & Chen, Y. L. (2001). What counts in the acquisition and attrition of numeral classifiers? JALT Journal, 23(1), 83-100.

Harvey, L. (2000). New realities: The relationship between higher education and employment. Tertiary Education and Management, 6(1), 3-17.

Herdina, P., & Jessner, U. (2002). A dynamic model of multilingualism: Changing the psycholinguistic perspective. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Hutz, M. (2004). Is there a natural process of decay? A longitudinal study of language attrition. In M. Schmid et al. (Eds.), First language attrition (pp. 189-206). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins.

Jamshidiha, H., & Marefat, H. (2006). L1 Persian attrition. The Linguistics Journal, 1(1), 17-46.

Jebb, A. T., Tay, L., Wang, W., & Huang, Q. (2015). Time series analysis for psychological research: Examining and forecasting change. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(727), 1-24.

Kargar, H., & Rezai, M. J. (2014). The contribution of lexicon to the language attrition of Iranian immigrants to Canada. Proceedings of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 830-838.

Khamkhien, A. (2010). Teaching English speaking and English-speaking tests in the Thai context: A reflection from Thai perspectives. English Language Journal, 3(1), 184-190.

Köpke, B., & Schmid, M. S. (2004). Language attrition: The next phase. In M. S. Schmid, B. Kopke, M. Keijzer and L. Weilemar (Eds.), First language attrition: Interdisciplinary perspectives on methodological issues (pp. 1-47). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins.

Köpke, B., & Schmid, M. S. (2011). Aspects psycholinguistiques de l'attrition de la première langue [Psycholinguistic aspects of first language attrition]. Linguistics, Interaction and Acquisition, 2(2), 197-220.

Lambert, R. D. (1982). Setting the agenda. In R. D. Lambert & B. F. Freed (Eds.), The loss of language skills (pp. 6-10). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Loftus, G. R., & Loftus, E. F. (1976). Human memory: The processing of information. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Marefat, H., & Rouhshad, A. (2007). Second language attrition: Are different nouns equally likely to be lost? Porta Linguarum, 8, 85-98.

Mehdiabadi, F., Maadad, N., & Arabmofrad, A. (2020). The role of first language attrition in Persian idiomatic expressions. Journal of Psycholinguist Research, 49, 607–629.

Mehotcheva, T. H. (2010). After the fiesta is over: Foreign language attrition of Spanish in Dutch and German Erasmus students. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.

Mellow, J. D. (1996). A longitudinal study of the effects of instruction on the development of article use by adult Japanese ESL learners. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.

Mickan, A., McQueen J. M., & Lemhöfer, K. (2019). Bridging the gap between second language acquisition research and memory science: The case of foreign language attrition. Front. Hum. Neurosci, 13, 385-397.

Morshedian, M. (2008). The role of initial English as foreign language proficiency in lexical attrition/retention of Iranian learners: Is productive or the receptive word knowledge of learned nouns more likely to be lost? Linguistics Journal, 3(1), 75-99.

Murtagh, L. (2003). Retention and attrition of Irish as a second language: A longitudinal study of general and communicative proficiency in Irish among second-level school leavers and the influence of instructional background, language use and attitude/motivation variables. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.

Nagasawa, S. (1999). Learning and losing Japanese as a second language: A multiple case study of American university students. In L. Hansen (Ed.), Second language attrition in Japanese contexts (pp.169-199). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Nakagawa, A. (2013). Two case studies of L2 attrition due to the change in school medium language from L2 to L1 in the L1 environment. Studies in Language Science, 2, 105-157.

Nakuma, C. (1997). A method for measuring the attrition of communicative competence: A pilot study with Spanish L3 subjects. Applied Psycholinguistics, 18(2), 219-235.

Nunan, D. (1995). Language teaching methodology: A textbook for teachers. New York: NY: Phoenix.

Oxford, R. (1982). Research on language loss: A review with implications for foreign language teaching. The Modern Language Journal, 66(2), 106-169.

Paradis, M. (2004). A neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins.

Paradis, M. (2007). L1 attrition features predicted by a neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism. In B. Köpke, M. S. Schmid, M. Keijzer, & S. Dostert (Eds.), Language attrition: Theoretical perspectives (pp.121-133). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins.

Roberts, B., & Kirsner, K. (2000). Temporal cycles in speech production. Language and Cognitive Processes, 15(2), 129-57.

Russel, R. A. (1999). Lexical maintenance and attrition in Japanese as a second language. In L. Hansen (Ed.), Second language attrition in Japanese contexts (pp. 114-141). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Schmid, M. S. (2011). Language attrition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Schmid, M. S., & Mehotcheva, T. H. (2012). Foreign language attrition. Dutch Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 102-124.

Seliger, H. W. (1991). Language attrition, reduced redundancy and creativity. In H. W. Seliger & R. M. Vago (Eds.), First language attrition (pp. 227-240). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Sheikh, Z., Ghoorchaei, B., & Shomoossi, N. (2017). Attrition of nouns and verbs among Iranian EFL learners after a two-year non-exposure. Journal of Education in Black Sea Region, 3(1), 159-170.

Sorace, A. (2004). Native language attrition and developmental instability at the syntax-discourse interface: Data, interpretations and methods, Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 7(2), 143-145.

Starren, M. (1998). Phenomenes de reduction linguistique en situation d’acquisition et d’attrition d’une langue second: A la recherche des elements linguistiques les plus susceptibles de regression [Phenomena of linguistic reduction in situations of acquisition and attrition of a second language: In search of the linguistic elements most susceptible to regression]. CALAP, 16(17), 51-77.

Tarone, E. (2005). Speaking in a Second Language. In H. Eli (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 485-502). London, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Taura, H. (2008). Language attrition and retention in Japanese returnee students. Tokyo, Japan: Akashi Shoten.

Tomiyama, M. (1999). The first stage of second language attrition: A case study of a Japanese returnee. In L. Hansen (Ed.), Second language attrition in Japanese contexts (pp. 59-79). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Tomiyama, M. (2000). Cross-linguistics influence in L2 attrition. JACET Bulletin, 32, 123-136.

Tomiyama, M. (2008). Age and proficiency in L2 attrition: Data from two siblings. Applied Linguistics, 30(2), 253- 275.

Ur, P. (2000). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Ur, P. (2012). A course in English language teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Velicer, W. F., & Fava, J. L. (2003). Time series analysis. In J. Schinka & W. F. Velicer (Eds.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 581-606). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Wei, J. (2014). Selectivity of second language attrition. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(8), 1603-1608.

Weltens, B. (1987). The attrition of foreign-language skills: A literature review. Applied Linguistics, 8(1), 22-37.

Weltens, B. (1989). The attrition of French as a foreign language. Dordrecht, Germany: Foris.

Weltens, B., & Grendel, M. (1993). Attrition of vocabulary knowledge. In R. Schreuder & B. Weltens (Eds.), The bilingual lexicon (pp. 135-156). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamin.

Weltens, B., Van Els, T. J. M., & Schils, E. (1989). The long-term retention of French by Dutch students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11(2), 205-216.

Yoshitomi, A. (1999). On the loss of English as a second language by Japanese returnee children. In L. Hansen (Ed.), Second language attrition in Japanese contexts (pp. 80-113). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Yuan, E., & Ellis, R. (2003). The effects of pre-task and online planning on fluency, complexity and accuracy in L2 monologic oral production. Applied Linguistics, 24(1), 1-27.

Zhu, M., & Xie, J. (2019). English vocabulary attrition of young Chinese EFL learners. International Journal of Linguistic, 11(3), 70-86.