The Effect of Time and Wetting-Drying Cycles on Durability of Mulches in Soil to Control Wind Erosion

آب و خاک

Article 8, Volume 37, Issue 2 - Serial Number 88, May and June 2023, Pages 295-314   

Document Type: Research Article

DOI: 10.22067/jsw.2023.74277.1127

Authors

Fatemeh Nooralivand¹; A. Farrokhian Firouzi^{* 2}

¹Department of Soil Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran

²Associate Professor, Department of Soil Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran

Abstract

Introduction
 Wind erosion is one of the important processes of soil degradation in arid and semi-arid regions. Increased soil surface resistance is a key factor to prevent wind erosion. Mulch can increase the resistance of soil surface against erosive agents by creating a coating on the soil surface. The effectiveness of mulch on wind erosion control is on the quantity, type, and durability of the used in dust sources of Iran for stabilizing soil surface against wind erosion. In recent decades, petroleum mulch has been broadly used for stabilizing soil surface against wind erosion in dust sources of Iran. Bio-polymers (e.g. cellulose hydrogel and biochar) and naturally accessible materials (e.g. nanoclay) as environment-friendly mulches can be an alternative to chemical polymers and petroleum mulches. In arid and semi-arid regions, wetting-drying cycles play a crucial role in soil aggregate formation and strength. However, there have been limited studies assessing the impact of wetting-drying cycles on the durability of applied mulches. The main objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of different types of mulches, including inorganic montmorillonite nanoclay, chemical polyvinyl acetate polymer, and biological biochar and cellulose hydrogel, at various time intervals. The study aimed to improve the physical and mechanical properties of soil, as well as control wind erosion in a loamy sand soil using a wind tunnel. Additionally, the durability of these mulches was evaluated over time after subjecting them to four wetting-drying cycles.
Materials and Methods
 A factorial experiment was conducted based on completely randomized design with three replications. The factors including mulch type (four levels: nanoclay montmorillonite, polyvinyl acetate polymer, biochar and cellulose hydrogel), mulch concentration (Nanoclay montmorillonite: 0, 16 and 32, Polyvinyl Acetate polymer: 0, 8, and 16, biochar and cellulose hydrogel: 0, 65 and 200 g/m²) and duration (21, 42, 63 and 126 days). The soil used in the wind tunnel experiments was collected from a dust source in the southeast of Ahvaz (Site Number 4). Trays measuring 50×30×5 cm were filled with this soil. The soil surface was then uniformly sprayed with an emulsion of Nanoclay and Polyvinyl Acetate. Additionally, biochar and cellulose hydrogel were mixed uniformly with the soil. Water was sprayed on the soil surface to maintain a constant moisture content of 75% of field capacity. After a specified period, soil properties such as mean weight diameter of aggregates, fractal dimension, penetration resistance, and shear strength were measured. The trays were then placed in a wind tunnel, and a wind erosion test was conducted at a wind speed of 20 m/s for a duration of 5 minutes. The amount of soil loss was measured using the weight method. Then, at each time, the best treatment from each mulch (in terms of reducing wind erosion) was selected and subjected to wet and dry cycles (four cycles).
Results and Discussion
 The results showed a significant interaction effects (p<0.01) of mulch type, mulch concentration and time factors on soil aggregate stability and fractal dimension, penetration resistance, shear strength were significant (p<0.01). Soil loss decreased in soils amended with biochar and cellulose hydrogel and increased in the case of montmorillonite and polyvinyl acetate polymer over the time. The amount of soil loss in soil amended with cellulose hydrogel decreased by 99.3%. The highest amount of soil penetration resistance and shear strength was observed in cellulose hydrogel mulch at the fourth time which were equal to 1038 and 123 kPa, respectively. Over time, the mean weight diameter of aggregates increased in the soil treated with cellulose and biochar hydrogels, but decreased in the polyvinyl acetate and montmorillonite nanoclay treatments. There was a negative correlation between aggregate stability and the fractal dimension of aggregates. In terms of soil loss, at the fourth measurement time, soils modified with cellulose hydrogels, biochar, polyvinyl acetate, and montmorillonite nanoclay experienced reductions of 99%, 71%, 84%, and 85% respectively, compared to the control. After four wet and dry cycles, the soil loss further decreased by 98%, 64%, 76%, and 81% in the respective treatments, compared to the control.
Conclusion
 In general, it can be concluded that cellulose hydrogel presented the greatest effect on reducing soil loss and controlling wind erosion. In the soils amended with biochar and cellulose hydrogel, the effect of mulches on reducing soil loss increased over the time. However, the opposite results were found in the case of polyvinyl acetate and montmorillonite nanoclay polymers. Therefore, biochar and cellulose hydrogel in the long term and polyvinyl acetate polymer and montmorillonite nanoclay in the short term can control wind erosion. Wet and dry cycles at all durations increased soil loss. But their effect remained on soil loss reduction until the end of the fourth cycle. The results revealed that environmentally friendly biopolymers synthesized from biomass components can be considered as sustainable sources to reduce wind erosion. Bio-polymers are a new window into the use of sustainable biomaterials instead of synthetics in wind erosion control.

Keywords

Biochar; Cellulose hydrogel; Montmorillonite nanoclay; Polyvinyl acetate polymer; Wind Erosion

References

1. Abbawi, Z.W.S. (2015). Studying strength and stiffness characteristics of sand stabilized with cement and limeEngineering and Technology Journal, 33(8), 1857–1875.
2. Ahmadi, A., Neyshabouri, M.R., Rouhipour H., & Asadi, H. (2011). Fractal dimension of soil a ggregates as an index of soil erodibility. Journal of Hydrology, 400, 305-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.01.045
3. Ahmed, A., Gariepy, Y., & Raghavan, V. (2017). Influence of wood-derived biochar on the compactibility and strength of silt loam soil. International Agrophysics, 31, 149-155. https://doi.org/10.1515/intag-2016-0044
4. AL Rasslany, I.A., & AL, Z. (2014). Effects of poly vinyl alcohol/starch as Soil conditioners on the physical properties of loamy sand and loam soils following different wetting and drying cycles. Journal of Natural Sciences Research, 4(24), 36-41.
5. Alipour, A., Tavili, A., Sangoony, H., & Alipouri, E. (2018). Operational, environmental and economic feasibility of using steel slag as mulch for controlling wind erosion. Desert Ecosystem Engineering Journal, 7(18), 15-26. (In Persian with English abstract)
6. Amiri Khaboushan, E., Emami, H., Mosaddeghi, M.R., & Astaraei, A.R. (2018). Estimation of unsaturated shear strength parameters using easily-available soil properties. Soil and Tillage Research, 184, 118-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.07.006
7. Arzaghi, F., Farrokhian Firouzi, A., Enayatizamir, N., & Khalilimoghaddam, B. (2017). Effect of Polyacrylamide Polymer on Wind Erosion Control of Sandy Soil in Azadegan Plain. Journal of Water and Soil, 31(4), 1070-1082. (In Persian with English abstract)
8. Arzaghi, F., Farrokhian, Firouzi. A., Enayatizamir, N., & Khalilimoghadam, B. (2015). Consideration the effect of Thrichoderma harzianum on windy erosion control of Azadegan plain sandy soil at laboratory and wind tunnel. Soil Management and Sustainable Production, 5(2), 239-251. (In Persian with English abstract)
9. Ataee, A., Gorji, M., & Parvizi, Y. (2014). Investigating the capability of fractal dimension of aggregates in evaluating different soil managements. Iranian Journal of Soil Research (Soil and Water Sciences), 28(4), 701-712. (In Persian)
10. Ayeldeen, M., Negm, A., El Sawwaf, M. & Gädda, T. (2016). Laboratory study of using biopolymer to reduce wind erosion. International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 12(3), 228-240. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2016.1264692
11. Bahari, M. & Shahnazari, A. (2015). Experimental study of the fine-grained earthen bed stabilization using nanoclay. Journal of Water and Soil Sciences, 19(72), 107-114. (In Persian)
12. Barthes, B., & Roose, E. (2002). Aggregate stability as an indicator of soil susceptibility to runoff and erosion: Validation at several levels. Catena, 47, 133-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(01)00180-1
13. Bravo-Garza, M.R., Bryan, B., & P. Voroney. (2009). Influence of wetting and drying cycles and maize residue addition on the formation of water stable aggregates in Vertisols. Geoderma, 151, 150-156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.03.022
14. Burrell, L., Zehetner, F., Rampazzo, N., Wimmer, B., & Soja, G. (2016). Long-term effects of biochar on soil physical properties. Geoderma, 282, 96-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.07.019
15. Cantón, Y., Solé-Benet, A., Asensio, C., Chamizo S., & Puigdefábregas, J. (2009). Aggregate stability in range sandy loam soils relationships with runoff and erosion. Catena 77: 192-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2008.12.011
16. Cao, Y., Wang, B., Guo, H., Xiao, H. & Wei, T. (2017). The effect of super absorbent polymers on soil and water conservation on the terraces of the loess plateau. Ecological Engineering, 102, 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.02.043
17. Chang, I., Im, J., & Cho, G. C. (2016). Introduction of microbial biopolymers in soil treatment for future environmentally-friendly and sustainable geotechnical engineering. Sustainability, 8(3), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8030251
18. Chu, G., Zhao, J., Huang, Y., Zhou, D., Liu, Y., Wu, M., Peng, H., Zhao, Q., Pan, B., E.W., & Steinberg, C. (2018). Phosphoric acid pretreatment enhances the specific surface areas of biochars by generation of micropores. Environmental Pollution, 240, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.003
19. Cosentino, D., Chenu, C., & Le Bissonnais, Y. (2006). Aggregate stability and microbial community dynamics under drying–wetting cycles in a silt loam soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 38, 2053-2062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.12.022
20. Das, K.C., Steiner, C., Ahmedna, M., Rehrah, D., & Schomberg, H. (2012). Biochars impact on soil-moisture storage in an ultisol and two aridisols. Soil Science, 177(5), 310–320. http://doi.org/10.1097/SS.0b013e31824e5593
21. Denison, M.R., & Hookham, P.A. (1996). Modeling of dust entrainment by high-  speed airflow. The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal, 34, 1392-1402. https://doi.org/10.2514/3.13245
22. Ding, Q., & Ding, W. (2007). Comparing stress wavelets with fragment fractals for soil structure quantification. Soil and Tillage Research, 93, 316–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2006.05.006
23. Ekhtesasi, M.R., & Hazirei, F. (2016). Investigation of cement mulch on stabilization of windblown.Journal of Range and Watershed Management, 68(4), 739-750. (In Persian with English abstract)
24. Falsone, G., Bonifacio, E., & Zanini, E. (2012). Structure development in aggregates of poorly developed soils through the analysis of the pore system. Catena, 95, 169-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.02.014
25. Fletcher, A.J., Smith, M.A., Heinemeyer, A., Lord, R., Ennis, C.J., Hodgson, E.M., & Farrar, K. (2014). Production factors controlling the physical characteristics of biochar derived from phytoremediation willow for agricultural applications. Bioenergy Ressearch, 7, 371–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-013-9380-x
26. Gong, W., Zang, , Liu, B., Chen, H., Wu, F., Huang, R., & Wang, Sh. (2016). Effect of using polymeric materials in ecological sand-fixing of Kerqin Sandy Land of China. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 133(43), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.44102
27. Grossman, J., Neves, E.G., & Luizão, F.J. (2010). Black carbon affects the cycling of nonblack carbon in soil. Organic Geochemistry, 41(2), 206–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2009.09.007
28. Hong, C., Chenchen, L., Xueyong, Z., Huiru, L., Liqiang, K., Bo, L., & Jifeng, L. (2020). Wind erosion rate for vegetated soil cover: A prediction model based on surface shear strength. Catena, 187, 104398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104398
29. Huang, G., & Zhang, R. (2005). Evaluation of soil water retention curve with the pore-solid fractal model. Geoderma, 127(1-2), 52-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.11.016
30. Hueso-González, P., Martínez-Murillo, J.F., & Ruiz-Sinoga, J.D. (2016). Effects of topsoil treatments on a orestation in a dry Mediterranean climate (southern Spain). Solid Earth, 7, 1479–1489.
31. Jamshidsafa, M., Khalili Moghadam, B., Jafari, S., & Ghorbani, SH. (2015). Feasibility investigation of FilterCake using in mulch production for sand dune stabilization in Ahvaz. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 38(1), 29-42. (In Persian with English abstract)
32. Jien, Sh.H., & Wang, C.Sh. (2013). Effects of biochar on soil properties and erosion potential in a highly weathered soil. Catena, 110, 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.06.021
33. Jingkuan, S., Fei, L., Zhongqi, L., Lingyan, Zh., & Zhengguo, S. (2014). Biochars derived from various crop straws: Characterization and Cd(II) removal potential. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 106, 226-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.04.042
34. Johannes, C., & Verbeek, R. (2012). Production and applications of Biopolymers, InTech.
35. Kadokawa, J., Murakami, M., & Kaneko, Y. (2008). A facile preparation of gel materials from a solution of cellulose in ionic liquid. Carbohydrate Research, 343(4), 769-772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2008.01.017
36. Kadokawa, J., Murakami, M., Takegawa, A., & Kaneko, Y. (2009). Preparation of cellulose–starch composite gel and fibrous material from a mixture of the polysaccharides in ionic liquid. Carbohydrate Polymers, 75(1), 180-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.07.021
37. Kalkan, E. (2009). Effects of silica fume on the geotechnical properties of fine- grained soils exposed to freeze and thaw. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 5, 130-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2009.03.011
38. Kemper, W.D., & Rosenau, R.C. (1986). Aggregate stability and size distribution. (pp: 425-442). In: Klute A, (Ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.
39. Khosravi, A., & Moosavi, A.A. (2017). Influence of organic acids and wetting-drying cycles on the aggregate stability and size distribution in a calcareous soil. Journal of Soil Research (Soil and Water Sciences), 31(2), 263-277. (In Persian with English abstract)
40. Li, L., Lin, Z., Yang, X., Wan, Z., & Cui, S. (2009). A novel cellulose hydrogel prepared from its ionic liquid solution. Chinese Science Bulletin, 54(9), 1622-1625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-009-0207-2
41. Liang, B., Lehmann, J., Sohi, S.P., Thies, J.E., O'Neill, B., Trujillo, L., Gaunt, J., Solomon, D., Liu, J., Bai, Y., Song, Z., Lu, Y., Qian, , & Kanungo, D.P. (2018). Evaluation of Strength Properties of Sand Modified with Organic Polymers. Journal Polymers, 10(5), 499-514. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10030287
42. Ma, R., Cai, C.Z.L., Wang, J., Xiao, T., Peng, G., & Yang, W. (2015). Evaluation of soil aggregate microstructure and stability under wetting and drying cycles in two Ultisols using synchrotron-based x-ray micro-computed tomography. Soil and Tillage Research, 149, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2014.12.016
43. Majdi, H., Karimian- Eghbal, M., Karimzadeh, H.R., & Jalalian, A. (2006). Effect of Different Clay Mulches on the Amount of Wind Eroded Materials. Journal of Crop Production and Processing, 10(3), 137-149. (In Persian)
44. Mandal, A., & Singh, N. (2017). Optimization of atrazine and imidacloprid removal from water using biochars: Designing single or multi-staged batch adsorption systems. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 220(3), 637-645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.02.010
45. Mehrabi, sh., Soltani, S., & Jafari, R. (2015). Investigation of the relationship between climate parameters and dust phenomenon (Case study: Khuzestan province). Journal of Sciences and Technology of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Hydrology and Soil Science, 19(71), 69-80. (In Persian with English abstract)
46. Memarzadeh, M., Emami, H., & Karimi, A.R. (2019). Evaluation the efficiency of mechanical and biological management practices on wind erosion in in Tal Hamid rail way Station of Tabas. Journal of Soil Management and Sustainable Production, 9(3), 113-131. (In Persian with English abstract). http://doi.org/22069/ ejsms.2020.15601.1836
47. Miri, A., Dragovich, D., & Dong, Z. (2017). Vegetation morphologic and aerodynamiccharacteristics reduce aeolian erosion. Scientific Reports. 7(1): 12831 48. Miri, A., Dragovich, D. & Dong, Z. (2019). Wind-borne sand mass flux in vegetated surfaces–Wind tunnel experiments with live plants. Catena, 172, 421-434. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.catena.2018.09.006
48. Mizuta, K., Taguchi, S., & Sato, Sh. (2015). Soil aggregate formation and stability induced by starch and cellulose. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 87, 90-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2015.04.011
49. Movahedan, M., Abbasi, N., & Keramati Toroghi, M. (2013). Experimental investigation of Polyvinyl Acetat effect on wind erosion of different soils by impacting sand particles. Journal of Water and Soil Conservation, 20(1), 55-75. (In Persian with English abstract)
50. Murphy, B.W. (2015). Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties-a review with emphasis on Australian soils. Soil Research, 53(6), 605–635. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR14246
51. Naghizade Asl, F., Asgari, H. R., Emami, H., & Jafari, M. (2017). Stabilization of drifting sands using micro silica- lime- clay as a mulch. Arabian Journal of Geoscience, 10(536), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3318-0
52. Naghizade Asl, F., Asgari, H.R., Emami, H., & Jafari, M. (2018). Effect of micro silica (Silica fume) as mulch on soil losses of sand dunes. Journal of Soil Management and Sustainable Production, 8(3), 139-145. http://doi.org/22069/ejsms.2018.13963.1771
53. Nooralivand, , & Farrokhian Firouzi, A. (2020). Investigation of modified biochar, nanoclay and polyvinyl acetate on soil stabilization and wind erosion control of sandy and loamy sand soils. 51(4), 923-935. (In Persian with English abstract)
54. Oades, J.M. (1984). Soil organic matter and structural stability: mechanisms and implications for management. Plant Soil, 76, 319-337.
55. Olawale, O.J., Abu, S.T., & Dorcas, O.O. (2016). Evaluation of soil aggregate stability under long term land management system. International Journal of Plant and Soil Science, 9(2), 1-7. http://doi.org/10.9734/IJPSS/2016/19691
56. Padidar, M., Jalalian, A., Asgari, K., Abdouss, M., Najafi, P., Honarjoo, N., & Fallahzade, J. (2017). The impacts of nanoclay on sandy soil stability and atmospheric dust control. Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus, 81(4), 193-196.
57. Paluszek, J. (2011). Physical quality of eroded soil amended with gel-forming polymer. International Agrophysics, 25, 375–382.
58. Peng, H.B., Gao, P., Chu, G., Pan, B., Peng, J.H., & Xing, B.S. (2017). Enhanced adsorption of Cu(II) and Cd(II) by phosphoric acid-modified biochars. Environment Pollution, 229, 846-853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.004
59. Pires, L.F., Bacchi, O.O.S., & Reichardt, K. (2007). Assessment of soil structure repair due to wetting and drying cycles through 2D tomographic image analysis. Soil and Tillage Research, 94, 537–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2006.10.008
60. Pirmoradian, N., Sepaskhah, A.R., & Hajabbasi, M.A. (2005). Application of fractal theory to quantify soil aggregate stability as influenced by tillage treatments. Biosystem Engineering, 90(2), 227-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2004.11.002
61. Rajabi Agereh, S., Kiani, F., Khavazi, K., Rouhipour, H., & Khormali, F. (2019). Evaluation of the efficiency of biological reformer in controlling wind erosion. Iranian Journal of Range and Desert Research, 26(4), 824-837. (In Persian with English abstract)
62. Rajaram, G., & Erbach, D.C. (1999). Effect of wetting -drying on soil physical properties. Journal of Terramechanics, 36, 39-49.
63. Refahi, H. (2009). Wind Erosion and its Control. 5^th University of Tehran prees, 320 p. (In Persian)
64. Safadoust, A., Mahboubi, A.A., Mosaddeghi, M.R., Gharabaghi, B., Voroney, P., Unc, A., & Khodakaramian, G.h. (2012). Significance of physical weathering of twotexturally different soils for the saturated transport of coli and bromide. Journal of Environmental Management, 107, 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.04.007
65. Shahabinejad, N., Mahmoodabadi, M., Jalalian, A., & Chavoshi, E. (2020). The influence of soil properties on the wind erosion rate at different regions of kerman province. Journal of Water and Soil Science, 24(9), 209-222. (in Persian with English abstract)
66. Spaccini, R., Piccolo, A., Mbagwu, J.S.C., Zena Teshale, A., & Igwe, C.A. (2002). Influence ofthe addition of organic residues on carbohydrate content and structural stability of some highland soils in Ethiopia. Soil Use and Management, 18, 404–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2002.tb00259.x
67. Sun, J.X., Sun, X.F., Zhao, H., & Sun, R.C. (2004). Isolation and characterization of cellulose from sugarcane bagasse. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 84(2), 331–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2004.02.008
68. Tejedor, M., Jimenez, C., & Diaz, F. (2003). Volcanic materials as mulches for water conservation. Geoderma, 117, 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(03)00129-0
69. Utomo, W.H., & Dexter, A.R. (1982). Changes in soil aggregate water stability induced by wetting and drying cycles in non-saturated soil. Journal of Soil Science, 33, 623-637. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1982.tb01794.x
70. Vaezi, A. (2011). Application of Petroleum mulches in controlling wind erosion and stabilization of Windblown. 2th Conference National Wind Erosion and Dust Storms, 16-17 Feb, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran. (In Persian with English abstract)
71. Verheijen, F., Jeffery, S., Bastos, A. C., van der Velde, M., & Diafas, I. (2010). Biochar application to soils a critical scientific review of effects on soil properties processes and functions. EUR 24099 EN. Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities. Luxembourg, 149 pp.
72. Vidal, V.E., Vivas Miranda, J.G., & Paz Gonzalez, A. (2005). Characterizing anisotropy and heterogeneity of soil surface microtopography usingfractal models. Ecology Modeling, 182, 337-353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2004.04.012
73. Walkly, A., & Black, I.A. (1934). An examination of digestion methods for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic and titration. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 37, 29-38.
74. Wang, B., Zheng, F.L., Römkens, M.J., & Darboux, F. (2013). Soil erodibility for water erosion: A perspective and Chinese experiences. Geomorphology, 187, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.01.018
75. Xu, J., Tang, Y., & Zhou, J. (2017). Effect of drying–wetting cycles on aggregate breakdown for yellow–brown earths in karst areas. Geoenvironmental Disasters, 4, 1–13.
76. Yang, Y. & Liu, X. (2006). Effect of different mulch materials on winter wheat production in desalinized soil in Heilongjiang region of North China. Soil Tillage and Research, 38, 231–243. http://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.2006.B0858
77. Zimbone, S.M., Vickers, A., Morgan, R.P.C., & Vella, P. (1996). Field investigation of different techniques for measuring surface soil shear strength. Soil Technology, 9, 101-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/0933-3630(96)00002-5
78. Zong, Y., Chen, D., & Lu, S. (2014). Impact of biochar on swell-shrinkage behavior, mechanical strength and surface cracking of clayey soil. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 177(6), 920-926. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201300596