Language and Care: A Qualitative Study of Iranian Language Learners' Perceptions based on Noddings' and Logstrup’s Care Theory

زبانشناسی و گویش های خراسان

Article 3, Volume 16, Issue 3 - Serial Number 36, December 2024, Pages 47-71   

Document Type: Original Article

DOI: 10.22067/jlkd.2024.90210.1279

Authors

Sahar Malekian¹; Seyyed Mohammad Reza Adel^{* 2}; Mohammad Davoudi²; Saeed Ghaniabadi³

¹PhD Candidate in TEFL, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran

²Associate Professor in TEFL, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran

³Assistant Professor of Linguistics, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran

Abstract

The primary aim of this qualitative study was to explore the relationships between teachers and language learners based on Noddings' (1998) and Logstrup’s (1997) care theory, focusing on the perceptions of Iranian language learners in public schools. Data were collected through interviews with ten language learners in these schools. The data were then analyzed using the coding stages of grounded theory (Corbin & Strauss, 1990) and MAXQDA software version 24. In this research, 22 sub-codes and four main codes were identified, leading to the development of a new theoretical model for the teacher-student care relationship. The main categories of this relationship included communication and interaction, teaching methods, understanding and support, and individual characteristics of teachers. Additionally, the subcategories encompassed: respect, reciprocal relationships, individual attention, patient listening to students, dialogue with students, relational literacy, teacher courage in initiating care relationships, honesty, compassion, encouragement, full engagement, motivational shifts, emotional support, trust-based communication, supportive environments, appropriate teaching methods, teacher availability, student interaction, realistic expectations from students, responsiveness, and the incorporation of fun and humor. The results suggests several educational implications for policymakers, teachers, and language learners from a psychological perspective, aiming to enhance their understanding and application of the concept of ‘care,’ which will contribute to teachers' professional growth and improve students' educational outcomes.

Keywords

Caring; Teacher-student Caring Relationships; Perception; Grounded Theory Methodology; MAXQDA Software

References

Aldrup, K., Klusmann, U., Lüdtk, O., Göllner, R., & Trautwein, U. (2018). Student misbehavior and teacher well-being: Testing the mediating role of the teacher-student relationship. Learning and Instruction, 58, 126‑136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.05.006

Ang, R. P. (2005). Development and validation of the teacher-student relationship inventory using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 74(1), 55‑74. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.74.1.55-74

Bagheri Nevisi, R., & Farmoudi, S. (2022). The relationship between extroversion/introversion, field dependence/field independence, and EFL learners’ willingness to communicate. Foreign Language Research Journal, 12(1), 31-48. https://doi.org/10.22059/jflr.2021.329752.883

Bai, L. Y., Li, Z. Y., Wu, W. X., Liu, L. Y., Chen, S. P., Zhang, J., & Zhu, J. N. Y. (2022). Student-teacher relationship: Its measurement and effect on students’ trait, performance, and wellbeing in private college. Frontiers in Psychology, 13: 793483.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.793483

Berg, B. L. (2001). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Allyn and Bacon.

Bosworth, K. (1995). Caring for others and being cared for: Students talk caring in schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(9), 686-693.

Boynton, M., & Boynton, C. (2005). The educator’s guide to preventing and solving discipline problems. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Cassidy, W., & Bates, A. (2005). ‘Drop-outs’ and push-outs: Finding hope at a school that actualizes the ethic of care. American Journal of Education, 112(1), 66-102.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/444524

Chernoblisky, E., Kosheleva, E., & Kobzeva, N. (2015). Student views of a caring teacher in an undergraduate English language classroom in Russia. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 166, 303-308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.528

Coburn, J., & Nelson, S. (1989). Teachers do make a difference: What Indian graduates say about their school experience. Report No. RC-017-103. Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (1990). Grounded theory research: Procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria. Qualitative Sociology, 13(1), 3-21.  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00988593

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches (4th ed.). Sage.

Davis, H. A. (2003). Conceptualizing the role and influence of student-teacher relationships on children’s social and cognitive development. Educational Psychologist, 38(4), 207-234. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3804_2

Davis, H. A., Gabelman, M. M., & Wingfield, R. D. (2011). She let us be smart: Low-income African-American first-grade students’ understandings of teacher closeness and influence. The Journal of Classroom Interaction, 46(1), 4-16.

Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.

Ferreira, M. M., & Bosworth, K. (2001). Context as a critical factor in young adolescents’ concepts of caring. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 15(I), 117-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02568540009594780

Gao, L. X., & Zhang, L. J. (2020). Teacher learning in difficult times: Examining foreign language teachers’ cognitions about online teaching to tide over COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2396. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.549653

Garza, R., Alejandro, E. A., Blythe, T., & Fite, K. (2014). Caring for students: What teachers have to say. International Scholarly Research Notices, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/425856

Goldstein, L. S. (2002). Reclaiming caring in teaching and teacher education. Peter Lang.

Jederlund, U., & Rosen, T, V. (2022). Teacher–student relationships and students’ self-efficacy beliefs. Rationale, validation and further potential of two instruments. Education Inquiry, 14(4), 429-553. https://doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2022.2073053

Jeffery, A. J., Auger, R.W., & Pepperell, J. L. (2013). “If we’re in trouble, they’re always there”: A qualitative study of teacher-student caring. The Elementary School Journal, 114(1), 100-116.

Kuchartz, U. & Radiker, S. (2019). Analyzing qualitative data with MAXQDA: Text, audio, and video. Springer

Lee, Q. A. Y., & Yuen, M. (2019). The role of teacher care in determining academic success of community college students: a case study from Hong Kong. Pastoral Care in Education, 37(2), 94-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2019.1618376

Lee, R. M. (2004) Recording technologies and the interview in sociology, 1920–2000. Sociology 38(5), 869–889. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038504047177

Logstrup, K. E. (1997). The ethical demand. University of Notre Dame Press.

Longobardi, C., Settanni, M., Berchiatti, M., Mastrokoukou, S., & Marengo, D. (2023). Teachers’ sentiment about physical appearance of primary school students: associations with student–teacher relationship quality and student popularity among classroom peers. Social Psychology of Education, 26, 383-403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-022-09749-9

Longobardi, C., Settanni, M., Lin, S., Fabris M. A. (2021). Student–teacher relationship quality and prosocial behaviour: the mediating role of academic achievement and a positive attitude towards school. Educational Psychology, 91(2), 547–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12378

Monzo, L., & Rueda, S. (2001). Professional roles, caring, and scaffolds: Latino teachers’ and para educators’ interactions with Latino students. American Journal of Education, 109(4), 438-471. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/444335

Murray, C., & Zvoch, K. (2011). The inventory of teacher-student relationships: Factor structure, reliability, and validity among African American youth in low-income urban schools. Journal of Early Adolescence, 31(4), 493–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431610366250

Neff, P., & Rucynski, J. (2021). The English classroom as ‘warai no ba’: Instructor views on humor and language learning in Japan. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2, 100070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100070

Noddings, N. (1988). An ethic of caring and its implications for instructional arrangements. American Journal of Education, 96(2), 215–230. http://doi.org/10.1086/443894

Noddings, N. (2012). The language of care ethics. Knowledge Quest, 40(4), 52-56.

Noddings, N. (2013). Caring: A relational approach to ethics and moral education (3rd ed.). University of California Press.

Pasandi, S., Bagherzadeh Kasmani, M., & Ahangari, S. (2023). Microgenetic analysis in an EFL Context: The effects of teacher and peer scaffolding on reading comprehension pedagogy. Journal of Foreign Language Research, 13(1), 59-78.

http://doi.org/10.22059/jflr.2022.338520.935

Rabjerg, B. (2017). Løgstrup’s ontological ethics: An analysis of human interdependent existence. Res Cogitans, 12(1), 93-110. https://doi.org/10.7146/rc.1296646

Roza, J. M. G., Frenzel, A. C., & Klassen, R. M. (2021). The teacher-class relationship: A mixed-methods approach to validating a new scale. Zeitschrift für P¨adagogische Psychologie, 36(1‑2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-0652/a000328

Ruslin, R., Mashuri, S., Abdul Rasak, M. S., Alhabsyi, F., & Syam, H. (2022). Semi-structured Interview: A methodological reflection on the development of a qualitative research instrument in educational studies. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME), 12(1), 22-29. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-1201052229

Saxer, K., Schnell, J., Mori, J., & Hascher, T. (2024). The role of teacher–student relationships and student–student relationships for secondary school students’ well-being in Switzerland. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 6, 100318.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100318

Seale, C., & Silverman, D. (1997). Ensuring rigour in qualitative research. The European Journal of Public Health, 7(4), 379-384. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/7.4.379

Shockley-Zalabak, P., Ellis, K., & Winograd, G. (2000). Organizational trust, what it means, why it matters. Organizational Development Journal, 18, 35-48.

Skærbæk, E. (2011). Navigating in the landscape of care: a critical reflection on theory and practice of care and ethics. Health Care Anal, 19(1), 41-50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10728-010-0157-5

Song, L., Luo, R., & Zhan, Q. (2022). Toward the role of teacher caring and teacher-student rapport in predicting English as a foreign language learners’ willingness to communicate in second language. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.874522

Sun, X., Mainhard, T., & Wubbles, T. (2017). Development and evaluation of a Chinese version of the Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI). Learning Environments Research, 21, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-017-9243-z

Tettegah, S., & Anderson, C. J. (2007). Pre-service teachers’ empathy and cognitions: statistical analysis of text data by graphical models. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32(1), 48–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.10.010

Teven, J. J., & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The relationship of perceived teacher caring with student learning and teacher evaluation. Communication Education, 46(1), 1-9,

https://doi.org/10.1080/03634529709379069

Tosolt, B. (2008). Differences in students’ perceptions of caring teacher behaviors: The intersection of race, ethnicity, and gender. Race, Gender & Class, 15(1-2), 274-288.

White, B. (2003). Caring and the teaching of English. Research in the Teaching of English, 37(3), 295-328. https://doi.org/10.58680/rte20031774