Mental Models and User Experience in E-Reader Applications

پژوهشنامه کتابداری و اطلاع رسانی

Article 3, Volume 15, Issue 1 - Serial Number 29, June 2025, Pages 57-76   

Document Type: Research Article

DOI: 10.22067/infosci.2025.90205.1221

Authors

Azam Najafgholinejad¹; Zeinab Safavi^{* 2}

¹Assistant Professor in Data Science, Information, and Artificial Intelligence Research Group of National library and archives of I.R. Iran, Tehran, iran.

²PhD in Knowledge and Information Science, Faculty of Alzahra University Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

Introduction: It has been less than two decades since the emergence of e-readers in the world, but their use in Iran dates back about 10 years.  E-reader apps, as user-interactive applications, have unique features and capabilities, and each of them has unique users and enthusiasts who have expectations of these applications. This research investigates users' mental models of E-reader application interaction.
Methodology: This research adopts a pragmatic approach, employing qualitative methods to investigate the mental models of users interacting with e-reader application interfaces. Data collection involved exploratory observation and the think-aloud protocol. A rigorous process was followed, encompassing participant training on research objectives and methodologies, the establishment of a suitable research environment, the provision of task-specific instructions, and the recording of all sessions. The participant pool, comprised of users of domestic e-reader applications, was recruited using snowball sampling. Participants were asked to verbalize their interaction process with an e-reader application, from launch to completion of their intended activity. Specifically, individual participants were observed, remotely via videoconferencing software, as they used the application, articulating their thoughts, feelings, and opinions throughout the interaction, from initial search to goal attainment. These sessions were recorded using FastStone screen recording software. Data collection continued until saturation was reached, which occurred after observing 11 participants. Subsequent to achieving saturation, data analysis commenced. To ensure rigor, the study employed Lincoln and Guba's criteria for validity and reliability. Qualitative data were analyzed using content analysis, involving the categorization and grouping of codes. MAXQDA (version 22) software facilitated the coding process.
Findings: The research findings indicated that user interactions with e-reader applications were primarily concentrated within the "Content" (123 instances) and "Interactive Aspects and Feedback" (103 instances) subcategories. Conversely, the least frequent interactions pertained to "Appearance Settings" (44 instances), "Access" (46 instances), and "Support and Technical Issues" (50 instances). Given the participants' freedom to articulate their mental models while interacting with the e-reader application user interfaces, and their encouragement to verbalize their thought processes, their concurrent verbalizations of interaction methods and activities frequently included proposed solutions and opinions regarding communication enhancement. In essence, these end-users, by virtue of their direct engagement with the e-reader applications, offered valuable insights and suggestions for improvement. This study examined user suggestions for system improvement, encompassing technical enhancements, feature additions, and user interface modifications. Suggestions were treated as a broad category, subsequently classified into eight distinct subcategories comprising 49 individual items. The analysis of these suggestions offers developers potential avenues for enhancing user experience and increasing user satisfaction. User-generated suggestions for enhancing e-reader application performance predominantly fall within the "Content" subcategory (n=16), followed by "Access" (n=11) and "Interaction" (n=10). "Search" and "Appearance Settings" each received minimal attention, with only one suggestion per subcategory.
Discussion and Conclusion: Shifting user emphasis towards the interactive and content-driven facets of software applications may be attributed to evolving cultural norms and emerging user needs centered on social connectivity and experiential sharing. This study offers insights that can inform the design of E-reader application features by elucidating user needs and expectations related to social interactions.
Originality: While the adoption of e-readers in Iran is not yet widespread, the rapid pace of technological advancement suggests an imminent expansion in their usage. Consequently, this research offers significant value and originality by focusing on users' mental models. Specifically, by examining these mental models in relation to user characteristics and interaction patterns with e-reader applications, and by comparing them with other interactive models, this study provides designers and manufacturers with a more authentic and empirically grounded understanding of user needs.

Keywords

E-Reader Application; User Experience; User Interface; Mental Models

References

Baecker, R., & Buxton, W. (1987). Readings in human-computer interaction: A multidisciplinary approach.

Crossland, M. D., S. Silva, R., & Macedo, A. F. (2014). Smartphone, tablet computer and e‐reader use by people with vision impairment. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 34(5), 552-557. https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12136.

Dickstein, R., & Mills, V. (2000). Usability testing at the university of arizona library: How to let the users in on the design. Information technology and libraries, 19(3), 144.

Ferreira, S. B. L., Da Silveira, D. S., Capra, E. P., & Ferreira, A. O. (2012). Protocols for evaluation of site accessibility with the participation of blind users. Procedia Computer Science, 14, 47-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2012.10.006

Ghoreishi, Z. (2004). Examining the opinions of students of the faculty of educational sciences and psychology of ferdowsi university of mashhad about reading with the intention of learning, reading with the intention of pleasure, reading with the intention of making a decision and the two principles of "reasonable thinking" and "least effort". Library and Information Sciences, 28, 30-47. (In Persian)

Hashim, N. L., Matraf, M. S. B., & Hussain, A. (2021). Identifying the requirements of visually impaired users for accessible mobile e-book applications. JOIV: International Journal on Informatics Visualization, 5(2), 99-104. https://doi.org/10.30630/joiv.5.2.398.

Hu, J., & Zhang, Y. (2016). Understanding chinese undergraduates’ continuance intention to use mobile book-reading apps: An integrated model and empirical study. Libri, 66(2), 85-99. https://doi.org/10.1515/libri-2015-0090.

Khoeini, S., & Naghshineh, N. (2019). Investigating the adoption rate of students' mental model with the structure of the learning management system of the university of tehran by card sorting method. Human Information Interaction, 6(3), 55-71. (In Persian)

Li, P. (2007). Doctoral students’ mental models of a web search engine: An exploratory study. McGill University.

Liu, H., Shao, M., Liu, X., & Zhao, L. (2021). Exploring the influential factors on readers' continuance intentions of e-book apps: Personalization, usefulness, playfulness, and satisfaction. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 640110. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.640110

Mlilo, S., & Thatcher, A. (2010). Mental models: Have users' mental models of search engines improved in the last ten years? University of the Witwatersrand.

Norman, D. A. (2014). Some observations on mental models. In Mental models (pp. 15-22). Psychology Press.

Pourmohammad, S., Rasekh, K. A., Ghaedi, M., & Soltani, H. (2022). Developing communication model of interpersonal relationships in everyday life. Sociological Review, 29(1), 539-559. https://doi.org/10.22059/jsr.2022.93698 (In Persian)

Rahrovani, S., Mirzabeigi, M., & Abbaspour, J. (2016). The investigation of the librariansâ mental model completeness scale of the icons in the circulation and cataloging modules of azarakhsh, simorgh and nika digital library applications. Iranian Journal of Information Processing and Management, 32(1), 251-274. https://doi.org/10.35050/JIPM010.2016.027 (In Persian)

Rahrovani, S., Mirzabeigi, M., & Abbaspour, J. (2017). The trained and untrained users’ mental models compatibility with the icons of search modules in iranian digital library applications. Library Hi Tech, 35(2), 290-302. https://doi.org/10.1108/LHT-06-2016-0071.

Rajabali Beglou, R., Fattahi, R., & Parirokh, M. (2019). Value co-creation among digital librariesâ software beneficiaries (users, librarians & designers) of iran. Iranian Journal of Information Processing and Management, 35(1), 261-290. https://doi.org/10.35050/JIPM010.2019.009 (In Persian)

Safavi, Z., Farzin-Yazdi, M., & Ghasempour, S. (2024). Identifying factors influencing users' continuous use of e-reader applications. Library and Information Sciences, 26(4), 33-56. https://doi.org/10.30481/lis.2023.420292.2104. (In Persian)

Safavi, Z., Ghaebi, A., & Baradar, R. (2022). Designing a model for user interaction with e-reader applications. Library and Information Sciences, 25(2), 34-61. https://doi.org/10.30481/lis.2022.315806.1910. (In Persian)

Staggers, N., & Norcio, A. F. (1993). Mental models: Concepts for human-computer interaction research. International Journal of Man-machine studies, 38(4), 587-605. https://doi.org/10.1006/imms.1993.1028

Young, I. (2008). Mental models: Aligning design strategy with human behavior. Rosenfeld Media.

Zerehsaz, M. (2019). Thinking aloud methode: Explanation and applications in human-centered research. Chapar. (In Persian)

Zhang, J., Wang, Q., & Shi, Y. (2015). Research on e-book application interface based on mental model. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 731, 242-247. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.731.242